'Ten  • Years' 
Digging  in 
EGYPT  f 

W.M.  FLINDERS  PETRIE 


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Portraits  Painted  in  Wax,  from  Roman  Mummies,  IIawara. 

See  Page  97. 


V 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING 


IN  EGYPT 


BY 


A 


W.  M.  FLINDERS  PETRIE 


AUTHOR  OF  ‘PYRAMIDS  OF  GIZEH,'  ‘HAWARA,’  ‘MEDUM,’  ETC. 


WITH  A MAP 

AND  ONE  HUNDRED  AND  SIXTEEN  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FLEMING  H.  REVELL  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  I CHICAGO 

30  Union  Square,  East  | 148-150  Madison  Street 

The  Religious  Tract  Society , London. 


‘In  studying  history,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  a 

KNOWLEDGE  IS  NECESSARY  OF  THE  STATE  OF  MANNERS,  CUSTOMS, 
WEALTH,  ARTS,  AND  SCIENCE  AT  THE  DIFFERENT  PERIODS 
TREATED  OF.  THE  TEXT  OF  CIVIL  HISTORY  REQUIRES  A CON- 
TEXT OF  THIS  KNOWLEDGE  IN  THE  MIND  OF  THE  READER.’ 

Sir  Arthur  Helps  on  History. 


PREFACE 


Although  the  discoveries  which  are  related  in 
this  volume  have  been  already  published,  yet  there  is 
to  be  considered  the  large  number  of  readers  who 
feed  in  the  intermediate  regions  between  the  arid 
highlands  and  mountain  ascents  of  scientific  memoirs, 
and  the  lush — not  to  say  rank — marsh-meadows  of 
the  novel  and  literature  of  amusement. 

Those,  then,  who  wish  to  grasp  the  substance  of 
the  results,  without  the  precision  of  the  details,  are 
the  public  for  whom  this  is  written  ; and  I trust  that, 
out  of  consideration  for  their  feelings,  hardly  a single 
measurement  or  rigid  statement  can  be  found  here 
from  cover  to  cover.  Any  one  who  wants  detail  can 
find  it  in  the  various  annual  volumes  which  have 
already  appeared.  Several  of  the  finest  objects  found 
appear  here,  however,  for  the  first  time  in  illustration  ; 
for  having  been  kept  in  Egypt  I only  had  photographs 
to  work  from,  which  were,  as  yet,  unused. 

The  work  described  here  is  not  by  any  means  all 
that  has  occupied  my  time  in  these  years ; much 
exploring  has  also  been  done,  and  dozens  of  ancient 

B 


2 


PREFACE 


towns  have  been  visited,  and  their  remains  examined  ; 
but  such  work  is  rather  a basis  for  further  results 
than  a source  of  interest  in  itself  to  the  public. 
Besides  this  I have  been  occupied  in  Palestine. 

I may  as  well  remark  that  the  first  two  years’  work 
were  done  entirely  as  a private  matter  ; though  the 
Royal  Society  afterwards  made  a grant  to  cover  the 
greater  part  of  the  cost  of  its  publication.  The  three 
following  years’  work  was  carried  on  for  the  Egypt 
Exploration  Fund  ; but  as  the  management  of  that 
society  was  not  what  I had  expected,  I preferred 
to  withdraw,  without  personal  unpleasantness ; in 
fact,  some  promoters  of  it  have  been  more  my  friends 
since  then  than  they  were  before.  For  a year  I rather 
explored  than  excavated,  having  indeed  no  prospect 
of  funds  at  my  disposal  for  the  purpose.  But  to 
my  surprise,  two  supporters  of  the  subject  appeared 
independently,  Mr.  Jesse  Haworth,  and  then 
Mr.  Martyn  Kennard ; all  expenses  of  excavation 
and  transport  in  the  last  four  years’  work,  have  been 
at  their  charge  ; and  the  objects  found,  and  not  kept 
for  the  Egyptian  Museum,  or  retained  for  private 
friends,  have  been  presented  by  them  to  various  public 
collections.  Thus  three  years  have  been  private 
work,  three  years  with  the  Fund,  and  four  years  with 
other  friends. 

One  of  the  pleasantest  results  of  my  work  has  been 
the  number  of  co-operators  who  have  appeared,  and 
the  friendships  that  have  resulted.  In  fact  an  informal 
body  of  workers  have  come  together,  all  attracted  by 


PREFACE 


3 


a real  love  of  work,  and  not  by  publicity  or  the 
buttering  and  log-rolling  of  societies.  Without  any 
parade  of  empty  names,  or  speechifying,  we  each 
know  where  to  turn  for  co-operation,  and  how  to  join 
hands  to  help  in  the  work. 

To  many  the  interest  of  these  researches  will  be  the 
solidity  and  reality  which  they  give  to  what  we  only 
knew  as  yet  on  paper.  When  we  read  of  ‘ Pharaoh’s 
house  in  Tahpanhes,’  and  then  see  Defenneh  explain- 
ing the  narrative, — when  Ezekiel  wrote  of  Javan  being 
1 merchants,’  and  ‘ going  to  and  fro,  occupied  in  the 
fairs  ’ of  Tyre,  and  we  see  the  widespread  trade  of  the 
Ionians  as  early  as  Gurob, — when  we  read  in  Homer 
of  the  prehistoric  civilization,  and  see  the  actual 
products  of  those  races  brought  to  light, — we  feel 
how  real  was  the  life  of  which  the  outlines  have  come 
down  to  us  across  the  ages. 

I hope  that  among  my  readers  there  may  be  some 
who  are  not  of  the  superficial  class,  for  whom  the 
tender-foot  directions  of  guide-books  are  written, 
and  the  luxuries  of  hotels  are  provided  as  attractions; 
so  I have  given  some  hints  as  to  how  a traveller 
may  go  about  in  Egypt  without  the  usual  routine 
of  coddling,  and  being  led  by  the  nose  by  a drago- 
man. If  the  active  tripper  is  thereby  induced  to  take 
an  active  trip  in  Egypt,  and — contrary  to  the  custom 
of  most  tourists  — subordinate  the  stomach  to  the 
intellect,  I shall  be  very  glad  to  make  his  acquaintance 
there. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 


Chapter  I.  The  Pyramids  of  Gizeh 

11 

n.  Tanis  .... 

29 

III.  Naukratis 

36 

IV.  Daphnae — Tahpanhes  . 

5° 

V.  Nebesheii 

64 

VI.  Up  the  Nile  . 

7i 

VII.  Hawara  .... 

81 

VIII.  Illahun  and  Kahun 

107 

IX.  Gurob  .... 

128 

X.  Medum  .... 

138 

XI.  Fresh  Light  on  the  Past 

148 

XII.  The  Art  of  Excavating 

156 

XIII.  The  Fellah  . 

167 

XIV.  The  Active  Tripper  in  Egypt 

187 

Addenda  to  Baedecker’s  Vocabulary 

• 

196 

Index  

• 

!97 

LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Frontispiece. — Portraits  painted  in 
wax,  from  Roman  Mummies, 
Hawara. 

Map. — Position  of  Places  inEgypt 
named  in  this  Volume . 

1.  The  Pyramids  of  Gizeh 

2.  My  Tomb  at  Gizeh 

3.  Triangulation  of  Pyramids, 

Gizeh  .... 

4.  Granite  Casing  Third  Pyra- 

mid   

5.  Temple  of  Third  Pyramid  . 

6.  Casing  beneath  Rubbish 

North  of  Pyramid.  Arab 
Hole  above  it  . 

7.  Mace-head  of  Khafra  . 

8.  Pyramid  Doors  . 

9.  Pivot  Hole  of  Door  and  Cut- 

ting of  Roof ; South  Pyra- 
mid Dahshur  . . 

10.  Sawn  Basalt  . . . 

xi.  Tubular  Drill  Hole  . 

12.  Granite  Drill  Core  . 

13.  Graving  in  Diorite  . 

14.  Section  of  Bowl  turned  with 

Radius  Tool 

15.  Plummet  of  Khufu 

16.  Gizeh  Pyramids  from  the 

Desert  .... 

17.  Temple  of  Tanis  from  East 

End  ; Pylon  in  distance  . 

18.  Stele  of  Ptolemy  II 

19.  Gold  Ring  .... 

20.  Bakakhuiu  .... 

21.  Hieroglyphics,  with  Hiera- 

tic Form  and  Explanation 

22.  Ruins  of  Fort,  with  Arab 

Cemetery  .... 


23.  Cypriote  Soldier . . 

24.  Dedication  rf  Statue  to  He- 

liodoros,  by  the  Naukrat- 

37 

10 

ites 

25.  Necking  of  Column,  Apollo 

38 

Temple  .... 

40 

II 

26.  Oldest  Ionic  Dedication, 

12 

660?  B.  c. 

4i 

27.  Naukratite  Cup  . 

41 

IS 

28.  Examples  of  Dedications 
(transliterated)  to  Apollo, 

17 

Aphrodite,  Hera,  and  the 

18 

Dioskouroi 

42 

29.  Foundation  Deposit  Models 

43 

30.  Dedication  of  Palaistra 

44 

20 

31.  Scarab  Mould  and  Scarab  . 

45 

23 

32.  Coin  of  Naukratis  . 

45 

24 

33.  Iron  Tools  .... 

46 

34.  Negro  on  Naukratite  Vase  . 

48 

35.  Naukratite  Design 

48 

24 

36.  Part  of  Embossed  Gold 

26 

Band.  About  70  A.  D. 

49 

26 

37.  Ruins  of  Daphnae,  in  the 

26 

Desert  .... 

5° 

27 

38.  Restoration  of  the  Fort, 
showing  the  Large  Plat- 

2  7 

form  before  the  Entry 

52 

28 

39.  Foundation  Deposit  . 

40.  Greek  Vase,  imitated  from 

53 

28 

form  of  Egyptian  Metal 

Vase 

55 

29 

41.  Vase  with  different  Patterns 

56 

31 

42.  Great  Vase;  Subjects,  Boreas 

33 

and  Typhon  . . 

57 

34 

43.  Iron  Tools  .... 

58 

44.  Gold  Handle 

5S 

35 

45.  Sealed  Jar  Neck,  with  name 

of  Amasis  .... 

60 

36 

46.  Daphniote  Gold  Work 

62 

8 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

47.  Silver  Shrine,  and  Gold 

Figure  of  Ra  . . .63 

48.  Granite  Shrine  of  Temple  . 64 

49.  Foundation  Deposit  . . 66 

30.  Sanctuary  and  Temples  . 67 

51.  Lykaonian  Spearheads  and 

Vases  . . . .68 

52.  Ushabti  Figures,  Twentieth 

Dynasty  . . . .70 

53.  A Nile  Morning  . . .71 

54.  Tablets  of  Kings,  Fifth  to 

Twelfth  Dynasties  . 73 

55.  An  Inscribed  Rock  atSilsileh  74 

56.  Tablet  of  Antef  and  Men- 

tuhotep  III  . . .74 

57.  Animal  Figures  at  Silsileh  . 75 

58.  Oldest  Tool  in  Egypt . . 76 

59.  People  of  Pun,  S.  Arabia  . 76 

60.  Hanebu,  Early  Greek  . . 77 

61.  Entrance  of  South  Pyramid. 

Casing  destroyed  below  it  78 

62.  North  Pyramid,  and  South- 

ern in  Distance . . .79 

63.  Way-marks  on  Fayum  Road  80 

64.  Pyramid  of  Hawara  . .81 

65.  Flint  Knife . . . .82 

66.  Pedestals  of  Biahmu  . . 83 

67.  Wall  of  Court  . . .83 

68.  Section  of  Court,  with  Statue  84 

69.  Plan  of  Pyramid  . . .87 

70.  Inscription  of  Amenemhat 

III  ....  89 

71.  Altar  of  Neferu-ptah  . . 89 

72.  Vultureand  Cow,  from  Coffin 

Lid 95 

73.  Four  Stages  of  Mummy 

Decoration  . . .98 

74.  Cut-glass  Vase  . . . 101 

75.  Side  of  Ivory  Casket  . . 102 

76.  Sedan  Chair,  Terra  Cotta  . 102 

77.  Roman  Rag  Dolls  . . 103 

78.  Building  North  of  Birket 

Kerun  ....  105 

79.  Interior  of  Building  . . 105 

80.  Toy  Bird  on  Wheels,  Hawara  106 

81.  Pyramid  of  Illahun  . 107 


PAGE 

82.  Foundation  Deposit  . .112 

83.  North  side  of  Kahun,  show- 

ing Line  of  Town  Wall  . 113 

84.  Steps  to  Upper  Buildings  on 

Hill 114 

85.  Basket  with  Tools  . 115 

86.  Castanets  and  Figure  of 

Dancer  . . .116 

87.  Ivory  Baboon  . . .117 

88.  Flint  Tools  ....  118 

89.  Plasterers'  Floats,  and  Brick- 

mould  ....  118 

90.  Agricultural  Tools  of  Wood  119 

91.  Fire  Apparatus  . . . 119 

92.  Set  of  Tools,  Vases,  and 

Mirror  ....  120 

93.  Clay  Toys,  Twelfth  Dynasty  121 

94.  Objects  from  Maket  Tomb  . 123 

95.  FlintHippopotamus, Twelfth 

Dynasty  ....  127 

96.  Bronze  Pans,  Nineteenth 

Dynasty  ....  128 

97.  Bronze  Interlocking  Hinges  129 

98.  Bronze  Tools  . . . 129 

99.  Coffin  Head  of  Anen  the 

Tursha  Official  . . . 130 

100.  Wooden  Statuettes  of  a 

Priestess,  and  the  Lady  Res  131 

101.  Hittite  Harper  . . . 132 

102.  Phoenician  Venus  Mirror  . 132 

103.  Aegean  Vases  . . . 133 

104.  Blue  and  Yellow  Glass  Bottle  133 

105.  Blue- glazed  Vases  . . 134 

106.  Blue-glazed  Bowls  . . 135 

107.  Ivory  Duck  Box  . . . 137 

108.  Pyramid  of  Medum  . . 138 

109.  Court  of  Temple  . . 141 

no.  Section  of  Pyramid  . . 142 

hi.  Columns  of  Third  Dynasty  . 143 

112.  Forms  of  Rubbish-heap,  and 

of  Ruins  of  Building  . . 157 

1 13.  Houses  in  the  Delta,  with 

Rain-proof  Domes  . . 168 

1 14.  Houses  in  Middle  Egypt  . 170 

115.  Houses  in  Upper  Egypt  . 172 


KINGS  AND  DYNASTIES  NAMED 
IN  THIS  VOLUME 


Approximate 

Dynasty.  date  b.c. 

IV.  Seneferu,  Khufu,  Khaffa,  Menkaura  . . . 4000-3800 

V.  Ra-kha-nefer,  Unas 3700-3500 

VI.  Rameri-Pepi 34°° 

XI.  Antef-aa  II,  Mentuhotep  IV,  Antef  V,  Sankhkara  . 2800 

XII.  Amenemhat I, II,  Usertesenll,  III,  Amenemhat  III  2700-2500 

XIV.  Nehesi-Ra 2300 

XVI.  Apepi 1900 

XVIII.  Tahntmes  III,  Amenhotep  III,  IV,  Khuenaten  . 1450-1350 

XIX.  Ramessu  II,  Merenptah  I 1250-1150 

XX.  Ramessu  III 1100 

XXII.  Usarkon  I 950 

XXV.  Tirhaka,  Amenardus 700 

XXVI.  Psamtik  (Psammetikhos)  I,  II;  Uahabra  (Apries)  ; 

Aahmes  II  (Amasis) 666-526 

Ptolemaic.  Ptolemy  II  (Philadelphos)  ....  286-247 

Roman  period 30  B.  C.-400  a.d. 

Coptic  period about  400-700  a.d. 

Cufic  period about  700-1000  A.D. 

Arabic  period 1000  A.D.  to  present 

(The  last  terms  are  used  vaguely  for  general  indications.) 


Position  of  Places  in  Egypt  named  in  this  volume. 


i.  The  Pyramids  of  Gizeh. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  PYRAMIDS  OF  GIZEH. 
l88l-2. 

WHEN,  in  the  end  of  1880,  I first  started  for  Egypt, 
I had  long  been  preparing  for  the  expedition  ; during 
a couple  of  years  before  that  measuring  instruments, 
theodolites,  rope-ladders,  and  all  the  impedimenta  for 
scientific  work,  had  been  prepared  and  tested.  To 
start  work  under  circumstances  so  different  to  those 
of  any  European  country,  and  where  many  customary 
appliances  were  not  to  be  obtained,  required  neces- 
sarily much  prearrangement  and  consideration ; 
though  on  the  whole  my  subsequent  experience  has 
been  that  of  decreasing  the  baggage,  and  simplifying 
one’s  requirements. 

The  first  consideration  on  reaching  Egypt  was 
where  to  be  housed.  In  those  days  there  was  no 
luxurious  hotel  close  to  the  pyramids  ; if  any  one 


12 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


needed  to  live  there,  they  must  either  live  in  a tomb 
or  in  the  Arab  village.  As  an  English  engineer  had 
left  a tomb  fitted  with  door  and  shutters  I was  glad 
to  get  such  accommodation.  When  I say  a tomb,  it 
must  be  understood  to  be  the  upper  chamber  where 
the  Egyptian  fed  his  ancestors  with  offerings,  not  the 
actual  sepulchre.  And  I had  three  rooms,  which  had 


2.  My  Tomb  at  Gizeh. 


belonged  to  separate  tombs  originally ; the  thin  walls 
of  rock  which  the  economical  Egyptian  left  between 
his  cuttings,  had  been  broken  away,  and  so  I had  a 
doorway  in  the  middle  into  my  living-room,  a window 
on  one  side  for  my  bedroom,  and  another  window 
opposite  for  a store-room.  I resided  here  for  a great 
part  of  two  years  ; and  often  when  in  draughty  houses, 
or  chilly  tents,  I have  wished  myself  back  in  my  tomb. 
No  place  is  so  equable  in  heat  and  cold,  as  a room 
cut  out  in  solid  rock  ; it  seems  as  good  as  a fire  in 
cold  weather,  and  deliciously  cool  in  the  heat. 

I lived  then,  as  I have  since  in  Egypt,  independent 
of  servants.  The  facilities  of  preserved  provisions,  and 


THE  PYRAMIDS  OF  GIZEH 


J3 


the  convenience  of  petroleum  stoves,  enable  one  to  do 
without  the  annoyance  of  having  some  one  about 
meddling  with  everything.  I had  one  of  the  most 
intelligent  men  of  the  place,  Ali  Gabri,  to  help  me 
with  the  work,  and  his  nephew  and  slave  used  to 
sleep  in  the  next  tomb  (on  the  right  of  the  sketch)  as 
my  guards  at  night.  Such  was  my  first  taste  of  sweet 
independence  from  civilization. 

The  object  in  view  for  which  the  work  was  under- 
taken was  to  decisively  test  the  various  theories 
concerning  the  pyramids,  which  were  then  being 
widely  discussed  on  very  insufficient  knowledge.  If 
all,  or  any,  of  these  theories  were  correct,  there  were 
some  very  tough  questions  to  be  picked  over  between 
different  parties ; but  the  first  question  to  be  settled 
was  whether  the  theories  agreed  with  the  actual  facts 
of  the  case,  as  if  they  did  not  there  was  no  need 
of  further  discussion.  They  must  pass  the  test  of 
fact  before  they  could  be  further  considered  on  the 
grounds  of  their  abstract  probability  or  metaphysical 
coherence.  One  of  the  most  obvious  of  all  the  facts, 
and  most  deeply  concerned  in  the  various  theories, 
was  the  actual  size  of  the  great  pyramid  ; yet  this 
was  not  known  with  any  accuracy,  the  best  measure- 
ments varying  by  several  feet.  Most  of  the  theories 
involved  the  notion  of  extreme  accuracy  of  workman- 
ship, yet  we  were  entirely  ignorant  of  the  amount 
of  accuracy  in  the  form  of  the  pyramid,  and  in  most 
of  its  internal  construction. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  here  to  point  out  what  is  the 
meaning  of  accuracy.  One  often  hears  that  some- 
thing is  ‘quite  accurate.’  If  I ask  a workman  if  his 


14 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


work  is  accurate,  he  will  indignantly  refer  to  his  foot- 
rule  to  prove  it ; but  if  you  were  to  ask  if  his  foot- 
rule  is  accurate  he  would  doubt  your  sanity.  What 
is  accuracy  for  one  purpose  is  inaccuracy  for  another. 
Children  build  castles  on  the  sand,  and  make  them 
perhaps  tidy  enough  ; but  their  accuracy  would  not 
do  for  laying  out  a garden  ; nor  would  the  garden 
bed  quite  do  to  regulate  the  straightness  of  a tennis 
court.  When  a house  is  planned,  still  further  particu- 
larity is  needed  for  the  accuracy  of  its  squareness 
and  straightness  ; and  yet  the  joiner  needs  a better 
straight  edge  than  the  bricklayer.  In  turn  the  joiner’s 
ideas  would  never  suffice  for  the  accuracy  of  putting 
together  a Forth  bridge,  with  its  lengths  of  furlongs 
of  steel,  needed  to  exactly  fit  into  place.  And  even 
beyond  that,  the  telescope  maker,  dividing  his  circles, 
or  polishing  his  object  glasses,  must  attend  to  quanti- 
ties which  are  quite  beyond  the  accuracies  of  the  en- 
gineer. There  are  as  many  kinds  of  accuracy  as  there 
are  of  cleanliness,  from  the  cleanness  of  a clean-swept 
path,  up  to  the  absolute  lifelessness  and  chemical 
purity  of  some  tedious  preparation  in  the  laboratory. 

There  is,  therefore,  no  such  thing  as  absolute  ac- 
curacy ; what  is  called  accuracy  in  each  business  is 
that  amount  of  inaccuracy  which  is  insignificant.  If 
we  want  to  understand  what  kind  of  precision  the 
ancients  aimed  at,  our  errors  in  examining  their  work 
must  be  so  small  as  to  be  insignificant  by  the  side  of 
their  errors.  If  they  went  to  the  nearest  hundredth 
of  an  inch,  we  must  go  to  the  nearest  thousandth,  in 
order  to  know  what  their  ideas  of  accuracy  were. 

The  main  work  of  the  first  season,  therefore,  con- 


THE  PYRAMIDS  OF  GIZEH 


15 


sisted  in  making  a very  precise  triangulation  all  over 
the  hill  of  Gizeh  ; including  points  around  all  the 
three  pyramids,  and  on  the  temples  and  walls  belong- 
ing to  them.  A fine  theodolite  was  used,  by  which 
single  seconds  of  angle  could  be  read ; and  the  obser- 


vations were  repeated  so  many  times,  that  if  I finished 
the  work  at  a single  station  in  one  day  I was  well  satis- 
fied. The  result  of  all  this  mass  of  checked  observa- 
tions, after  duly  reducing  and  computing,  was  that  there 
was  scarcely  a point  about  which  one  quarter  inch  of 
uncertainty  remained,  and  most  of  the  points  were 
fixed  to  within  one-tenth  of  an  inch.  These  points 


1 6 TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

were,  however,  only  arbitrary  marks  put  on  suitable 
spots  of  the  rock ; and  it  needed  a good  deal  of  less 
elaborate  work  to  connect  these  with  the  traces  of 
the  ancient  constructions  near  them.  The  second 
season  I obtained  permission  from  Prof.  Maspero  to 
search  for  the  ancient  casing  and  points  of  construc- 
tion of  the  pyramids.  Many  points  were  found  easily 
enough  ; but  some  required  long  and  dangerous  work. 
To  reach  the  casing,  which  still  remains  at  the  middle 
of  each  side  of  the  great  pyramid,  was  a hard  matter  ; 
it  was  heaped  over  with  broken  chips  a dozen  to 
twenty  feet  deep,  and  they  lay  so  loosely  that  they  soon 
fell  into  any  hole  that  we  dug.  It  was  needful  there- 
fore to  begin  with  a very  wide  space,  and  gradually 
taper  the  hole,  walling  the  sides  roughly  with  loose 
blocks.  Thus  we  succeeded  in  finding  the  casing  on 
each  of  the  three  sides,  where  it  was  as  yet  unknown  j 
the  north  casing  having  been  cleared  by  a huge  exca- 
vation of  Col.  Vyze  over  forty  years  before.  These 
holes  were  very  ticklish  places,  make  them  as  we 
would ; the  Arabs  dared  not  work  them,  and  I had 
to  get  negroes  to  face  the  business.  As  it  was,  we 
could  not  venture  to  knock  a bit  of  the  stone,  for  fear 
of  the  vibration  loosening  the  sides  ; and  I was  all 
but  buried  once,  when— just  as  I had  come  out  of  the 
bottom  of  the  hole — many  tons  of  stones  went  pouring 
down  the  pit  from  the  loose  stuff  above. 

At  the  third  pyramid  the  difficulty  was  varied  ; 
there  the  pyramid  was  encumbered  with  loose  blocks 
lying  on  a bed  of  sand.  So  soon  then  as  we  dug  into 
the  sand,  the  blocks  came  sliding  down  into  our  hole. 
But  here  the  matter  was  settled  by  adding  more  stones, 


THE  PYRAMIDS  OF  GIZEH 


17 


and  so  wedging  all  the  blocks  around  into  a ring ; 
thus  they  balanced  around  the  hole,  and  kept  each 
other  out. 

The  casing  of  the  third  pyramid  has  never  been 
finished. 

The  outer  sides  of  the  granite  blocks  were  left  with 
an  excess  of  stone,  in  order  to  protect  them  in  transport 
from  Assuan,  and  this  was  never  removed  by  dressing 


4.  Granite  Casing  Third  Pyramid. 

down,  as  had  been  intended.  Thus  in  some  examples 
— as  above — the  stone  sticks  out  far  beyond  where  the 
face  was  to  be.  In  the  granite  temple  the  same  me- 
thod was  followed,  but  there  the  wall  was  dressed,  and 
hence  each  stone  at  the  corners  of  the  chambers  turns 
a little  way  round  the  adjacent  walls,  so  that  the 
corner  is  cut  out  of  solid  stone  all  the  way  up. 

The  temple  of  the  third  pyramid  is  the  most  com- 
plete, and  gives  the  best  notion  of  the  enclosures 
around  the  cell  or  chamber,  in  which  the  offerings 

C 


1 8 TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

to  the  deceased  king  were  presented.  This  view  is 
from  the  top  of  the  pyramid,  looking  down  into  it. 
At  the  end  of  its  causeway  are  a few  trees,  and  a hill 
on  the  right,  with  remains  of  another  causeway  leading 
from  it  to  the  plain. 


5.  Temple  of  Third  Pyramid. 

Of  the  inside  of  the  pyramids  there  were  already 
numerous  measurements  recorded,  which  showed  that 
small  differences  and  errors  existed  in  the  work  ; but 
some  fresh  and  more  accurate  methods  of  examination 
were  needed.  Instead  then  of  simply  measuring  from 


THE  PYRAMIDS  OF  GIZEH 


J9 


wall  to  wall,  and  remaining  in  ignorance  of  where 
the  discrepancies  lay,  I always  used  plumb-lines  for 
measuring  all  upright  faces,  and  a levelling  instrument 
for  all  horizontal  surfaces.  By  hanging  a plumb-line 
in  each  corner  of  a room,  and  measuring  from  it  to 
the  walls  at  many  parts  of  the  height,  and  then 
observing  the  distances  of  the  plumb-lines  on  the 
floor,  it  is  easy  to  find  the  dimensions  of  the  room  at 
any  level,  and  to  know  exactly  where  the  faults  of  con- 
struction lie.  The  same  principle  gives  us  the  readiest 
way  of  examining  a solid,  such  as  a sarcophagus ; 
and  we  can  thus,  in  a few  hours,  do  more  than  in  as 
many  days’  work  with  elaborate  apparatus.  Some 
thread,  and  a piece  of  wax  to  stick  it  on  with,  are  all 
that  is  needed  beside  the  plain  measuring  rods. 

The  results  of  thus  attacking  the  subject  were,  that 
on  the  one  hand  most  brilliant  workmanship  was 
disclosed,  while  on  the  other  hand  it  was  intermingled 
with  some  astonishing  carelessness  and  clumsiness. 
The  laying  out  of  the  base  of  the  great  pyramid  of 
Khufu  is  a triumph  of  skill ; its  errors,  both  in 
length  and  in  angles,  could  be  covered  by  placing 
one’s  thumb  on  them  ; and  to  lay  out  a square  of  more 
than  a furlong  in  the  side  (and  with  rock  in  the  midst 
of  it,  which  prevented  any  diagonal  checks  being 
measured)  with  such  accuracy  shows  surprising  care. 
The  work  of  the  casing  stones  which  remain  is  of  the 
same  class ; the  faces  are  so  straight  and  so  truly 
square,  that  when  the  stones  were  built  together  the 
film  of  mortar  left  between  them  is  on  an  average  not 
thicker  than  one’s  thumb  nail,  though  the  joint  is  a 
couple  of  yards  long  ; and  the  levelling  of  them  over 


20 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


long  distances  has  not  any  larger  errors.  In  the 
inside  of  the  pyramid  the  same  fine  work  is  seen  : the 
entrance  passage  joints  are  in  many  cases  barely 
visible  when  searched  for ; in  the  Queen’s  chamber, 
when  the  encrusting  salt  is  scraped  away,  the  joints 
are  found  with  cement  not  thicker  than  a sheet  of 
paper  ; while  in  the  King’s  chamber  the  granite 
courses  have  been  dressed  to  a fine  equality,  not 


6.  Casing  beneath  Rubbish  North  of  Pyramid. 
Arab  Hole  above  it 


varying  more  than  a straw’s  breadth  in  a furlong 
length  of  blocks. 

Side  by  side  with  this  splendid  work  are  the 
strangest  mistakes.  After  having  levelled  the  casing 
so  finely,  the  builders  made  a hundred  times  the  error 
in  levelling  the  shorter  length  of  the  King’s  chamber, 
so  that  they  might  have  done  it  far  better  by  just 
looking  at  the  horizon.  After  having  dressed  the 
casing  joints  so  beautifully,  they  left  the  face  of  the 


TIIE  PYRAMIDS  OF  GIZEH 


21 


wall  in  the  grand  gallery  rough  chiselled.  The  design 
was  changed,  and  a rough  shaft  was  cut  from  the  side 
of  the  gallery,  down  through  the  building  and  the 
rock,  to  the  lower  end  of  the  entrance  passage.  The 
granite  in  the  ante-chamber  is  left  without  its  final 
dressing.  And  the  kernel  of  the  whole,  the  sarco- 
phagus, has  much  worse  work  in  it  than  in  the  build- 
ing, or  than  in  other  sarcophagi  of  the  same  period. 
The  meaning  of  this  curious  discrepancy  seems  to  be 
that  the  original  architect,  a true  master  of  accuracy 
and  fine  methods,  must  have  ceased  to  superintend 
the  work  when  it  was  but  half  done.  His  personal 
influence  gone,  the  training  of  his  school  was  not 
sufficient  to  carryout  the  remainder  of  the  building  in 
the  first  style.  Thus  the  base  and  the  casing  around 
it,  the  building  of  the  Queen’s  chamber,  and  the  pre- 
paration of  the  granite  for  the  King’s  chamber,  must 
all  have  had  the  master’s  eye  ; but  the  carelessness  of 
the  pupils  appears  so  soon  as  the  control  was  removed. 
Mere  haste  will  not  account  for  egregious  mistakes, 
such  as  that  of  the  King’s  chamber  level,  which  the 
skilful  architect  would  have  remedied  by  five  minutes’ 
observation.  This  suggests  that  the  exquisite  work- 
manship often  found  in  the  early  periods,  did  not  so 
much  depend  on  a large  school  or  wide-spread  ability, 
as  on  a few  men  far  above  their  fellows,  whose  every 
touch  was  a triumph.  In  this  way  we  can  reconcile 
it  with  the  crude,  and  often  clumsy,  work  in  building 
and  sculpture  found  in  the  same  ages.  There  were  no 
trades  union  rules  against  ‘ besting  one’s  mates  ’ in 
those  days,  any  more  than  in  any  business  at  present 
where  real  excellence  is  wanted. 


22 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


The  results  were  decidedly  destructive  for  the 
theories.  The  fundamental  length  of  the  base  of  the 
pyramid  does  not  agree  to  any  of  the  theoretical 
needs : and  though  no  doubt  some  comfort  has  been 
extracted  from  hypothetical  lengths  of  what  the 
pyramid  base  would  be  if  continued  down  to  levels 
below  the  pavement  (such  as  the  different  sockets), 
yet  no  such  bases  ever  existed,  nor  could  even  be 
guessed  at  or  theorised  on,  so  long  as  the  pyramid 
base  was  intact,  as  the  sockets  were  entirely  covered 
by  casing  and  pavement.  Various  other  theories  fare 
as  badly ; and  the  only  important  one  which  is  well 
established  is  that  the  angle  of  the  outside  was  such 
as  to  make  the  base  circuit  equal  to  a circle  struck  by 
the  height  as  a radius.  See  also  the  account  of  Medum. 

The  second  pyramid  was  built  by  Khafra.  His 
name  was  first  found  with  it  on  the  piece  of  a 
mace-head  of  white  stone,  which  I found  in  the 
temple.  The  form  is  here  completed  from  another 
head  of  the  twelfth  dynasty ; and  drawings  of  maces 
from  Medum  show  the  head  and  stick  entire.  In 
accuracy  Khafra’ s work  is  inferior  to  that  of  Khufu. 
The  errors  of  the  pyramid  length  are  double,  and  of 
angle  quadruple  that  found  in  the  earlier  work,  and 
the  bulk  of  its  masonry  is  far  rougher.  But  the  sarco- 
phagus in  it  is  of  much  better  work,  without  any 
mistakes,  and  generally  showing  more  experience  and 
ability.  The  third  pyramid,  of  Menkaura,  is  again  in- 
ferior to  the  second,  in  both  its  outer  form  and  internal 
work.  It  has  moreover  been  most  curiously  altered  ; 
originally  intended  to  be  of  small  size,  it  has  been 
greatly  enlarged,  not  by  repeated  coatings,  but  at  one 


THE  PYRAMIDS  OF  GIZEH 


23 


operation.  The  original  entrance  passage  was  aban- 
doned, and  the  chamber  was  deepened,  another  passage 
cut  from  the  inside  outwards  so  as  to  emerge  lower 


7.  Mace-head  of  Kiiafra. 

down,  and  another  chamber  excavated  below  the  level 
of  the  first,  and  lined  with  granite. 

Some  very  usual  fallacies  with  regard  to  the 


24 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


pyramids  were  also  disposed  of.  The  passages  are 
commonly  supposed  to  have  been  blocked  up  by 


plugs  of  stone ; whereas  in  both  the  great  and  second 
pyramids  there  is  proof  in  the  passages  that  no  such 


9.  Pivot  Hole  of  Door  and  Cutting  of  Roof  : 

South  Pyramid,  Dahshur. 

blocks  ever  existed.  The  entrances  are  supposed  to 
have  been  concealed  by  the  solid  masonry ; whereas 
at  Dahshur,  and  in  Strabo’s  account  of  the  great 


THE  PYRAMIDS  OF  GIZEH 


25 


pyramid,  it  is  evident  that  a flap-door  of  stone  filled  the 
passage  mouth,  and  allowed  of  its  being  passed.  The 
pyramids  are  supposed  to  have  been  built  by  contin- 
uous additions  during  a king’s  life,  and  ended  only  by 
his  death  ; whereas  there  is  no  evidence  of  this  in  any 
of  them,  and  it  is  clearly  disproved  by  the  construc- 
tion and  arrangement  of  the  interiors ; the  plan  was 
entire  originally,  and  the  whole  structure  begun  at 
once.  The  sarcophagi  are  often  supposed  to  have 
been  put  in  to  the  pyramids  at  the  king’s  burial,  with 
his  body  inside  ; whereas  in  the  great  and  second 
pyramids  they  will  not  pass  through  the  passages 
and  must  have  been  built  in.  The  casing  is  supposed 
to  have  been  all  built  in  the  rough,  and  cut  to  its 
slope  afterwards  ; whereas  the  remaining  blocks  at 
the  base  slightly  differ  in  angle  side  by  side,  proving 
that  they  were  dressed  before  building  in. 

Besides  examining  the  pyramids,  the  remains  of  the 
temple  of  the  great  pyramid  were  cleared,  and  the 
granite  temple  of  Khafra  was  thoroughly  measured 
and  planned.  But  perhaps  the  most  interesting  part 
of  the  subject  was  tracing  how  the  work  was  done.  The 
great  barracks  of  the  workmen  were  found,  behind  the 
second  pyramid,  capable  of  housing  four  thousand  men; 
and  such  was  probably  the  size  of  the  trained  staff  of 
skilled  masons  employed  on  the  pyramid  building.  Be- 
sides these  a large  body  of  mere  labourers  were  needed 
to  move  the  stones  ; and  this  was  probably  done  during 
the  inundation,  when  water  carriage  is  easier,  and  the 
people  have  no  work.  Herodotos  gives  the  echo  of  this, 
when  he  says  that  the  relays  of  labourers  only  worked 
for  three  months  at  a time.  It  would  be  quite  prae- 


2 6 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


ticable  to  build  the  great  pyramid  in  the  time,  and 
with  the  staff  of  labourers  assigned  by  Herodotos. 

Tools  are  needed  as  well  as  labour  ; and  the  question 
of  what  tools  were  used  is  now  settled  by  evidence,  to 
which  modern  engineers  cordially  agree.  I found 


ii.  Tubular  Drill  Hole. 


repeatedly  that  the  hard  stones,  basalt,  granite,  and 
diorite,  were  sawn  ; and  that  the  saw  was  not  a blade, 
or  wire,  used  with  a hard  powder,  but  was  set  with 
fixed  cutting  points,  in  fact,  a jewelled  saw.  These 
saws  must  have  been  as  much  as  nine  feet  in  length, 
as  the  cuts  run  lengthwise  on  the  sarcophagi.  One  of 


THE  PYRAMIDS  OF  GIZEH 


27 


the  most  usual  tools  was  the  tubular  drill,  and  this 
was  also  set  with  fixed  cutting  points  ; I have  a core 
from  inside  a drill  hole,  broken  away  in  the  working, 
which  shows  the  spiral 
grooves  produced  by 
the  cutting  points  as 
they  sunk  down  into 
the  material  ; this  is  of 
red  granite,  and  there 
has  been  no  flinching  or 
jumping  of  the  tool  ; 13-  Graving  in  Diorite. 

every  crystal,  quartz,  or  felspar,  has  been  cut  through 
in  the  most  equable  way,  with  a clean  irresistible  cut. 
An  engineer,  who  knows 
such  work  with  diamond 
drills  as  well  as  any  one, 
said  to  me,  ‘ I should  be 
proud  to  turn  out  such  a 
finely  cut  core  now  ; ’ and 
truth  to  tell,  modern  drill 
cores  cannot  hold  a candle 
to  the  Egyptians ; by 
the  side  of  the  ancient 
work  they  look  wretchedly 
scraped  out  and  irregular. 

That  such  hard  cutting 
points  were  known  and 
used  is  proved  by  clean  cut 
fine  hieroglyphs  on  dio- 
rite, engraved  without  a trace  of  scraping  ; and  by  the 
lathe  work,  of  which  I found  pieces  of  turned  bowls  with 
the  tool  lines  on  them,  and  positive  proof  that  the  sur- 


14.  Section  of  Bowl  turned 
with  Radius  Tool. 


28 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


face  had  not  been  ground  out.  The  lathe  tools  were 
fixed  as  in  modern  times,  to  sweep  regular  arcs  from  a 
centre ; and  the  work  is  fearless  and  powerful,  as  in  a flat 
diorite  table  with  foot,  turned  in  one  piece ; and  also 
surpassingly  delicate,  as  in  a bowl  of  diorite,  which 
around  the  body  is  only  as  thick  as  stout  card.  The 

great  granite  sarcophagi 
were  sawn  outside,  and 
hollowed  by  cutting  rows 
of  tube  drill  holes, as  may 
be  seen  in  the  great 
pyramid.  No  doubt  much 
hammer  - dressing  was 
also  used, as  in  all  periods; 
but  the  fine  work  shows 
the  marks  of  just  such  tools  as  we  have  only  now 
re-invented.  We  can  thus  understand,  far  more  than 
before,  how  the  marvellous  works  of  the  Egyptians 
were  executed  ; and  further  insight  only  shows  plainer 
the  true  skill  and  ability  of  which  they  were  masters 
in  the  earliest  times  that  we  can  trace. 


15.  Plummet  of  Khufu.  1:2. 


16.  Gizeh  Pyramids  from  the  Desert. 


1 7.  Temple  of  Tanis  from  East  End;  Pylon  in  distance. 


CHAPTER  II. 

TANIS. 

1884. 

AFTER  a year  in  England,  for  the  working  out  and 
publication  of  the  survey  at  the  pyramids,  described 
in  the  last  chapter,  I undertook  to  excavate  for  the 
Egypt  Exploration  Fund.  And  as  great  things  were 
then  expected  from  Tanis,  and  a special  fund  of 
£ 1000  was  in  course  of  being  raised  for  its  clearance, 
the  most  desirable  course  was  to  ascertain  what 
prospects  really  existed  there.  A preliminary  explor- 
ing trip  was  made  to  several  places  in  the  Delta,  in 


30  TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

course  of  which  I discovered  Naukratis  ; and  as  soon 
as  the  marshes  had  somewhat  dried  I went  in 
February  to  Tanis.  It  is  an  out-of-the-way  place, 
inaccessible  except  by  water  during  some  months, 
twenty  miles  from  a post  or  station  ; on  three  sides 
the  marshy  plains  stretch  away  to  the  horizon,  only 
a little  cultivation  existing  on  the  south.  When  I 
arrived  the  mounds  were  almost  impassable  for  the 
mud,  and  continual  storms  threatened  my  tent.  But 
gradually  I built  a house  on  the  top  of  the  mounds, 
and  from  thence  looked  down  over  the  work  on  one 
side,  and  over  the  village  on  the  other. 

Tanis  is  a great  ring  of  mounds,  around  the  wide 
plain  in  which  lie  the  temple  ruins.  And  the  first 
day  I went  over  it  I saw  that  the  temple  site  was 
worked  out ; the  limits  of  the  ruins  had  been  reached, 
and  no  more  statues  or  buildings  should  be  hoped  for, 
by  the  side  of  what  was  already  known.  But  such 
were  the  large  expectations  about  the  site,  that  I had 
to  prove  the  case,  by  a great  amount  of  fruitless 
trenching  in  all  directions.  The  only  monuments  that 
we  unearthed  were  far  out  of  the  temple,  in  a Ptole- 
maic shrine  ; this  contained  a fine  stele  of  Ptolemy  II 
and  Arsinoe,  which  was  entirely  gilt  when  discovered, 
and  two  or  three  other  steles,  the  recess  containing 
the  large  stele  being  flanked  by  two  sphinxes.  The 
main  stele  and  sphinxes  are  now  in  the  British 
Museum. 

But  though  digging  was  not  productive  in  the 
temple,  yet  I found  two  important  monuments  which 
had  been  exposed  by  Mariette’s  excavators,  and  yet 
were  never  noticed  by  himself,  De  Rougd,  or  others 


TANIS 


31 


who  studied  the  remains.  One  was  a part  of  an  obelisk 
of  the  thirteenth  dynasty,with  an  inscription  of  a king’s 
son,  Nehesi,  perhaps  the  son  of  the  king  Nehesi-Ra. 
The  other  was  the  upper  part  of  the  well-known  stele 
of  Tirhaka:  this  I found  lying  face  up  ; and  on  search- 


ing every  block  of  the  same  quality  for  the  remainder 
of  it,  I turned  up  the  lower  half,  which  Mariette  had 
hidden ; thus  the  unknown  led  me  to  the  known. 

There  was,  however,  plenty  of  work  to  do  in  examin- 
ing thoroughly,  and  planning,  all  the  remains,  which — 


3 2 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


as  we  have  just  noticed — were  but  scantily  attended 
to  before.  The  fallen  blocks  of  the  granite  pylon 
needed  to  be  turned  over,  as  they  were  all  cut 
out  of  older  sculptures ; and  to  do  this  without 
tackle,  I dug  a trench  on  one  side  of  the  heap  of 
blocks,  and  then  rolled  them  over  one  by  one  into 
it,  so  as  to  turn  them.  In  this  way  I examined  every 
block,  and  discovered  the  fragments  of  the  enormous 
colos;  us  of  Ramessu  II  in  red  granite,  which  must  have 
been  about  80  feet  high,  and  have  towered  far  above 
the  temple  roofs,  amid  the  forest  of  obelisks  which 
adorned  the  city.  The  toe  alone  is  as  large  as  a 
man’s  body.  Some  large  statues  were  also  found  by 
the  road  leading  up  to  the  temple.  And  every  block 
of  the  hundreds  which  strew  the  ground  here  was 
examined  on  all  sides,  by  mining  beneath  it  where 
needful ; every  fragment  of  inscription  was  copied  ; 
and  finally  a plan  was  made,  showing  the  place  of 
each  block,  with  numbers  affixed  referring  to  the 
inscriptions.  Thus  anyone  can  draw  their  own  con- 
clusions as  to  the  arrangement  of  the  place,  and  the 
positions  of  the  monuments,  better  in  their  arm-chair 
than  by  wandering  over  the  chaos  of  dilapidation  in 
the  plain  of  Zoan. 

Finding  that  no  great  discoveries  could  reward  me 
in  the  temple,  I tried  the  outskirts  of  the  town,  but 
only  found  a very  late  cemetery  of  no  importance. 
I tried  also  sinking  pits,  in  hopes  of  reaching  the  early 
town  of  the  Ramcssides  or  the  Hyksos  ; but  in  vain,  as 
the  accumulation  of  Greek  and  Roman  remains  blocked 
the  way,  after  descending  even  thirty  feet.  Then  the 
houses  of  the  Roman  period  on  the  surface  were  ex- 


TANIS 


33 


amined.  One  yielded  a jar  in  the  corner  of  the  cellar, 
in  which  the  lady  had  hidden  away  a large  silver 
chain,  a necklace  of  fine  stones,  and  a gold  ring. 

But  the  burnt  houses  were 
the  real  prize  of  the  season, 
as  the  owners  had  fled  and  left 
. most  of  their  goods  ; and  the 
reddened  patches  of  earth  at- 
tracted us  usually  to  a profit- 
able site.  In  one  house  there 
was  a beautiful  marble  term, 
of  Italian  work  ; and  the  frag- 
ments of  a very  curious  zodiac, 
painted  on  a sheet  of  clear  glass  over  a foot  square,  each 
sign  or  month  having  an  emblematic  head  to  represent 
it;  unhappily,  it  was  broken  in  a hundred  and  fifty  pieces, 
and  as  I uncovered  them  it  was  cruel  to  see  the  gold 
foil  work  which  was  on  them  peel  off  on  to  the  earth, 
leaving  the  glass  bare  in  many  parts.  A yet  more 
heartrending  sight  was  the  pile  of  papyrus  rolls,  so 
rotted  that  they  fell  to  pieces  with  a touch,  showing 
here  and  there  a letter  of  the  finest  Greek  writing. 
The  next  house,  also  burnt,  was  the  best  of  all.  Here 
we  found  the  limestone  statuette  of  the  owner,  Baka- 
khuiu,  inscribed  in  demotic  on  the  base ; a sensible, 
sturdy-looking,  active  man,  who  seems  to  have  been 
a lawyer  or  notary,  to  judge  by  his  documents.  Many 
household  objects  of  pottery  and  stone  were  found, 
jars,  mortars,  &c.,  and  a beautiful  blue-glazed  jar, 
perhaps  the  largest  such  known,  and  quite  perfect. 
The  rich  result,  however,  was  in  his  waste ; for  in  a 
recess  under  the  cellar  stairs  had  been  five  baskets  of 


19.  Gold  Ring,  i : 2. 


D 


34 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


old  papyri.  Though  many 
had  utterly  perished  by 
being  burnt  to  white  ash, 
yet  one  basketful  was  only 
carbonized ; and  tenderly 
undermining  the  precious 
black  mass,  I shifted  it  out 
and  carried  it  up  to  my 
house  with  fear  and  reverent 
joy.  It  took  ten  hours’  work 
to  separate  safely  all  the 
documents,  twisted,  crushed, 
and  squeezed  together,  and 
all  as  brittle  as  only  burnt 
papyrus  is ; a bend,  or  a jerk, 
and  the  piece  was  ruined. 
At  last,  I had  over  a hundred 
and  fifty  documents  sepa- 
rated ; and,  each  wrapped 
apart,  and  put  in  tin  boxes, 
they  travelled  safely.  They 
have  now  all  been  opened, 
and  glazed ; and  two  of 
them  already  prove  to  be 
of  the  greatest  interest.  One 
is  a book  of  hieroglyphic 
signs  in  columns,  followed 
by  their  hieratic  equivalents, 
and  the  school-name  by 
which  they  were  learned : 
the  greater  part  of  this  is 
preserved,  and  shows  us,  for 


TANIS  35 

the  first  time,  the  system  on  which  the  hieroglyphics 
were  arranged  and  taught. 

n^JiL.  n n 

%im  nxMl 

21.  Hieroglyphics,  with  Hieratic  Form  and  Explanation. 

The  other  is  a geographical  papyrus,  forestalling 
Brugsch’s  great  work  on  the  geography  and  the 
nome  divisions  of  Egypt ; though  defective  in  part  all 
through,  it  is  of  the  greatest  value.  Most  of  the  other 
papyri  are  in  demotic,  and  still  await  reading,  while 
some  are  in  Greek.  Of  course,  being  carbonized,  the 
whole  mass  is  black,  and  it  is  only  by  reflected  light 
that  it  is  possible  to  read  anything  ; when  the  illumina- 
tion is  properly  arranged,  the  duller  surface  of  the  ink 
can  be  seen  on  the  brighter  face  of  the  papyrus.  It 
is  seldom  such  a treasure  as  this  basketful  of  know- 
ledge is  so  narrowly  saved  from  destruction ; a little 
more  air  in  the  burning,  a little  less  care  in  the 
unearthing,  the  separation,  the  packing,  or  the  open- 
ing, and  these  documents  would  have  disappeared. 
Of  course,  under  the  usual  system  of  leaving  Arab 
overseers  to  manage  excavations,  all  such  discoveries 
are  utterly  destroyed. 


22.  Ruins  of  Fort,  with  Arab  Cemetery. 


CHAPTER  III. 

NAUKRATIS. 

1885. 

Before  beginning  work  in  the  end  of  1883  I visited 
Gizeh  ; and,  as  usual,  many  small  antiquities  were 
offered  to  me  by  the  Arabs.  Among  such  was  the 
upper  part  of  an  alabaster  figure  of  a soldier,  wearing 
a helmet  and  armlets,  which  was  plainly  of  archaic 
Greek  or  Cypriote  work.  I at  once  gave  the  man 
what  he  asked  for  it  (never  run  risks  in  important 
cases),  and  then  enquired  where  he  got  it.  ‘ From 
Nebireh,’  was  his  answer,  and  that  was  somewhere 
near  Damanhur.  So,  a month  or  two  later,  I took  an 
opportunity  of  going  down  to  that  region,  and,  after 
some  mistakes  and  enquiries,  I at  last  reached  the 
place,  in  course  of  a twenty  mile  walk,  and  having 
only  half-an-hour  to  spare  before  going  on  to  the 
train.  There  I met  a sight  which  I had  never  hoped 
for, — almost  too  strange  to  believe.  Before  me  lay  a 
long  low  mound  of  town  ruins,  of  which  all  the  core 
had  been  dug  out  by  the  natives  for  earth,  thus 


NAUKRATIS 


37 


baring  the  very  lowest  level  of  the  town  all  over  the 
middle  of  it.  Wherever  I walked  in  this  crater  I trod 
on  pieces  of  archaic  Greek  pottery ; soon  I laded  my 
pockets  with  scraps  of  vases  and  of  statuettes,  and  at 
last  tore  myself  away,  longing  to  resolve  the  mystery 


23.  Cypriote  Soldier. 


of  these  Greeks  in  Egypt.  Up  to  that  time  no  Greek 
remains  earlier  than  the  Ptolemaic  age,  and  Alex- 
ander, had  been  found  in  the  country,  and  to  step 
back  two  or  three  centuries,  into  the  days  of  black- 
figured  and  rosette-ornamented  vases,  and  archaic 
statuettes,  was  quite  a new  departure. 


3 8 TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

That  season’s  work  was  already  laid  out,  and  I 
was  bound  to  go  to  Tanis  ; but  the  next  season  I 
returned  to  this  curious  site,  determined  to  understand 
its  history.  The  only  place  that  I could  find  to  live 
in  about  there  was  an  old  country  house  of  a pasha  ; 
and,  while  looking  at  it,  I noticed  two  blocks  of  dark 
grey  stone  by  the  side  of  the  entrance.  Turning 
one  of  them  over,  I there  saw  the  glorious  heading 
HnOAI2HNATKPATI  . . . ; a decree  of  the  city  of 
— 

HTTOAI2HNAYKPATI 

HAIOAaPONAnPIQNO£4>lAp--  • • • 

TON>£PEATHIA0HNAIAIABIOV  • • ■ 

£YrrpA<ko<kYAAKAAPETH£KAI 

ENEKATHIEIEAYTHN  ~ 

/ 

24.  Dedication  of  Statue  to  Heliodoros,  by  the 
Naukratites.  1 : 6. 

Naukratis  was  before  me,  and  the  unknown  town 
now  had  a name  ; and  that  a name  which  had  been 
sought  for  often,  and  far  from  this  place,  and  which 
was  one  of  the  objects  of  Egyptian  research  to  dis- 
cover and  truly  assign.  All  that  day  ‘Naukratis’ 
rang  in  my  mind,  and  I sprang  over  the  mounds  with 
that  splendid  exultation  of  a new  discovery,  long 
wished  for  and  well  found.  In  England,  some  hesi- 
tated, and  some  doubted,  but  none  denied  it ; and 
after  the  season’s  work  there  was  no  longer  any 
question.  The  next  year  I continued  the  excavations 


NAUKRATIS 


39 


along  with  Mr.  Ernest  Gardner,  and  was  soon  able  to 
leave  the  remainder  of  the  clearing  in  his  hands,  while 
I moved  on  to  fresh  discoveries,  on  the  east  of  the 
country. 

The  origin  of  Naukratis  was  evidently  entirely 
Greek  ; down  on  the  flat  surface  of  Nile  mud,  which 
shows  the  level  of  the  country  when  the  city  was 
founded,  the  earliest  remains  are  Greek  potsherds. 
The  date  of  its  foundation  was  certainly  before 
Amasis ; and  the  discovery  of  the  fort  of  Defenneh 
(Tahpanhes)  the  next  year  explained  the  origin  of  this 
city.  When  Psamtik  I,  in  665  B.C.,  had  wrested  the 
throne  of  Egypt  from  the  dodecarchy,  or  local  princes 
(who  had  assumed  authority  on  the  fall  of  the 
Ethiopian  rule  of  Tirhaka),  he  based  his  power  on 
‘ the  brazen  men  from  the  sea,’  the  Karian  and  Ionian 
mercenaries.  But  he  knew  too  well  the  temper  of  his 
countrymen  to  obtrude  this  strength  needlessly ; and 
at  the  same  time  he  needed  special  defence  from 
Libya  and  from  Asia.  He  therefore  planted  his  Greek 
troops  in  two  great  garrisons,  one  on  his  Libyan 
frontier  at  Naukratis,  the  other  on  his  Asiatic  frontier 
at  Tahpanhes  ; at  each  place  founding  a large  square 
fort  and  a walled  camp  around  it. 

These  Greeks  brought  with  them  their  national 
worship ; and  of  the  temples  mentioned  by  Herodotos, 
those  of  Apollo,  Aphrodite,  and  Hera,  have  been  found, 
and  also  one  to  the  Dioskouroi,  not  recorded  in  history. 
The  temple  of  the  Milesian  Apollo  appears  to  have 
been  the  oldest : it  stood  in  the  centre  of  the  town, 
outside  of  the  fort,  and  was  first  built  of  mud-brick, 
plastered  over,  and  later  on — about  the  fifth  century — 


40 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


of  white  stone,  some  pieces  of  which  I found.  The 
site  had  been  nearly  cleared  out  by  the  native  diggers  ; 
and  I only  came  in  time  to  get  fragments  of  the 
temple,  and  to  open  up  the  great  rubbish  trench, 
where  all  the  temple  refuse  was  thrown.  Very  pre- 


25.  Necking  of  Column,  Apollo  Temple. 

cious  this  rubbish  was  to  me,  layer  under  layer  of 
broken  vases,  from  the  innumerable  small  bowls  to 
the  great  craters  of  noble  size  and  design  ; and  most 
precious  of  all  were  the  hundreds  of  dedications 
inscribed  on  the  pottery,  some  of  them  probably  the 
oldest  examples  of  Greek  writing  known,  and  alto- 
gether far  outnumbering  all  our  past  material  for  the 


NAUKRATIS 


41 


archaic  alphabets.  The  temple  of  Aphrodite  I found 
the  next  year,  and  Mr.  Gardner  cleared  it  out,  and 
unearthed  three  successive  buildings,  one  over  the 
other.  Though,  perhaps,  as  old  as  that  of  Apollo,  its 

N m o i/u  A M\or]P 

L t € Vo  w ^ X o rr  A 

< 

26.  Oldest  Ionic  Dedication,  660?  b.c.  2:5. 

inscriptions  are  not  so  primitive  ; but  it  has  a charm 
from  the  tale  of  Athenaios  about  the  mariners  from 
Cyprus,  who  had  a statuette  of  the  goddess  a span 
high  in  their  boat ; and  how  they  besought  it  in  the 
storm,  and  were  soon  at  peace,  and  their  boat  bespread 
with  myrtle  boughs  ; wherefore  they  dedicated  the 


27.  Naukratite  Cup.  i : 3. 

statuette  in  the  temple  of  Aphrodite  at  Naukratis, 
and  the  people  of  the  city  made  myrtle  wreaths  for 
many  an  age  after.  Fine  vases  were  found  here  ; and 
great  quantities  of  a particular  kind  of  cup,  which  was 


42 


TEN  YEARS  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


apparently  made  on  purpose  for  offering  here.  It  is 
a bowl  with  a very  tall  upright  brim,  deeper  than 
the  bowl  itself,  and  covered  over  with  a white  coat, 
on  which  delicate  painting  in  brown  is  sometimes 
added ; that  these  were  specially  made  here  we  know 
from  the  name  of  Aphrodite  being  painted  on  one 
before  the  baking.  The  temple  of  Hera  has  been 
entirely  swept  away,  and  we  only  know  of  its  place 
from  some  pieces  of  dedication  on  bowls  found  by 
Mr.  Gardner ; these  lay  not  far  from  the  Apollo 
temple,  in  a great  enclosure,  which  I planned  the  first 


Tono/'A^An'rpiw'/'HtiA 


» / \ > . . -r  f'l  A/f  . \ v.  rt~  l LaJ 


28.  Examples  of  Dedications  (transliterated)  to  Apollo, 
Aphrodite,  Hera,  and  the  Dioskouroi.  2 : 3. 

season.  The  Dioskouroi  had  a small  temple  near 
that  of  Apollo  ; of  which  only  some  brick  pillars,  and 
flakes  of  brilliant  red  and  blue  stucco,  were  found. 
But  several  pieces  of  dedicated  bowls  showed  the 
nature  and  early  age  of  this  shrine. 

The  greatest  and  most  celebrated  building  of  Nau- 
kratis  was  the  Panhellenion,  with  the  central  altar 
of  the  Greek  community  in  Egypt.  This  was  in  the 
large  enclosure  around  the  fort,  as  all  are  agreed  ; but 
the  depth  of  earth  there  prevented  my  reaching  any 
remains  of  the  altar.  Herodotos  expressly  mentions 
that  certain  Greek  towns  were  excluded  from  the 


NAUKRATIS 


43 


common  participation  in  the  Panhellenion,  and  that 
hence  arose  the  separate  temples  in  the  town.  Now 
as  the  sanctuary  and  the  fort  were  in  one,  it  seems 
readily  explained  how  the  mercenaries  welcomed  their 
kinsmen  and  townsfolk  in  the  camp  to  join  at  the 
common  altar ; while  those  traders  who  came  from 
other  cities  would  be  left  outside,  and  would  found 
their  own  temples.  If  it  were  so,  we  may  conclude 
that  neither  Miletos,  Samos,  or  Aegina,  furnished  any 


Rake.  2,  Ai.abaster  Peg. Bronze:  3,  Knife;  5,  Axe  ; 8,  Adze;  9, 
Trowel;  ii,  Chisel;  12,  Hatchet.  Glazed:  4,  Cup;  10,  Liba- 
tion Vase;  14,  Block.  6,  Name  of  Ptolemy  II  on  Lazuli.  Mate- 
rials: 13,  Mud-brick  ; 15-23,  Turquoise,  Jasper,  Lazuli,  Agate- 
Gold,  Silver,  Lead,  Copper,  Iron,  i : 4. 

of  the  mercenaries  of  Psamtik.  In  the  time  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphos,  as  the  old  camp  and  Panhellenion  no 
longer  needed  defence,  the  entrance  was  widened  and 
occupied  with  a large  building  ; of  which  the  founda- 
tion deposits,  consisting  of  models  of  the  iron  and 
bronze  tools,  of  the  materials,  and  of  the  libation 
vases,  were  discovered  in  each  corner  of  the  bed  of 
sand  which  was  laid  beneath  the  foundations.  An 


44 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


avenue  led  up  to  this  from  the  west,  and  marble  rams, 
a large  granite  sphinx,  and  a base  of  a figure  dedi- 
cated to  Zeus  of  Thebes  (i.  e.  Amen,  identified  with 
Zeus),  were  found  here. 

To  turn  now  to  the  town  ; probably  one  of  the  most 
important  buildings  in  the  fifth  century  B.  C.  was  the 
palaistra,  dedicated  to  Apollo  by  Kleainetos,  Aristo- 
themios,  and  Maiandrios,  according  to  the  beautiful 
marble  inscription  found  here.  Unfortunately  we  do 
not  know  the  site  of  it,  as  the  inscribed  block  had 


KAEA1NETOC  API^TooEAUOl 
MA I A N A P I O £ iTPATilNlAEil 
THMTAAAISTPHN  ANEOHKAN 
APOAAflNI 


30.  Dedication  of  Palaistra.  1:6. 

been  re-used  in  later  times,  and  was  also  dug  up 
before  I went  to  the  place.  It  was  shown  to  me  one 
night  in  a native  hut,  by  a glimmering  lamp  ; I in- 
stantly copied  it,  for  fear  of  any  difficulty  arising,  and 
then  laid  down  ten  francs  on  it,  and  told  the  owner 
to  take  which  he  pleased,  the  stone  or  the  money ; 
with  a little  hesitation  at  having  the  pleasure  of  hag- 
gling so  cut  short,  he  picked  up  the  unexpected  price, 
and  I walked  off  behind  the  precious  block  to  my 
house.  The  natives  had  so  cleared  out  the  earth  from 
the  heart  of  the  town  that  all  the  Roman,  Ptolemaic, 
and  Persian  houses  and  remains  were  gone ; and  the 
floor  of  the  crater  thus  dug  out  consisted  of  the  oldest 


NAUKRATIS 


45 


town,  underlaid  by  a bed  of  ashes,  which  apparently 
showed  that  the  first  settlement  outside  of  the  camp 
was  a cluster  of  mere  booths.  Here  I found  a scarab 
factory,  where  they  had  made  the  scarabs  of  white 
and  blue  paste,  so  well  known  in  Greek  cemeteries  in 


31.  Scarab  Mould  and  Scarab,  i : i. 

Rhodes  and  elsewhere.  Hundreds  of  earthenware 
moulds  and  many  scarabs  were  unearthed,  and  this 
factory  is  the  leading  point  for  dating  the  early  town. 
The  work  of  the  scarabs  is  manifestly  a Greek  imi- 
tation of  Egyptian  style  ; and  the  names  of  the  kings 


32.  Coin  of  Naukratis.  i:i. 

upon  them  show  the  dates  to  come  down  to  the  time 
of  Uah-ab-ra  (Apries),  but  not  a single  example  of 
Amasis  was  found,  proving  the  factory  to  have  been  ex- 
tinct before  his  time.  Probably  the  great  defeat  of  the 
Greek  troops  by  Amasis  was  a severe  blow  to  Greek 


46 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


work  for  the  time  ; although  Naukratis  reaped  the 
benefit  of  the  annihilation  of  the  other  Greek  centres 
(such  as  Defenneh),  by  being  tolerated  and  having  the 
exclusive  privilege  of  trade.  The  first  autonomous 
coin  of  Naukratis  yet  known  was  found  in  the  town  ; 
with  heads  of  Naukratis  and  of  the  hero  Alexander. 

The  old  town  had  been  so  laid  bare  by  the  native 
diggers,  that  it  was  possible  to  form  a tolerable  plan 
of  the  streets  and  houses.  The  street  lines  were 
distinguished  by  the  rubbish  thrown  out,  mostly  re- 
mains of  food,  shells,  and  bones  ; while  in  later  times, 


33.  Iron  Tools,  i,  Sickle  ; 2,  3,  Chisels  ; 4,  Axe  ; 5,  6,  Chisels; 

7,  Axe  ; 8,  Fish-hook  ; 9,  Arrow-head  ; 10,  Hammer,  i : 8. 

from  the  fifth  century,  the  streets  were  regularly 
mended  with  limestone  chips  and  dust ; and  often  one 
may  trace  the  section  of  a puddle  hole  filled  up  with 
chips  and  levelled.  Among  the  houses  many  fine 
pieces  of  vases  were  found,  and  a small  hoard  of  early 
Greek  silver  coins  and  lumps  of  silver.  But  the  most 
interesting  matter  was  the  history  of  tools,  shown  by 
the  variety  of  iron  tools  ; we  here  meet,  for  the  first 
time,  what  may  be  looked  on  as  practically  our  modern 
forms  of  chisels,  &c.  ; and  we  see  what  a debt  we  owe 
to  European  invention,  when  we  compare  these  with 


NAUKRATIS 


47 


the  bronze  tools  of  the  Egyptians  which  preceded 
them. 

The  cemetery  has  not  yet  been  entirely  found  ; a 
portion  of  it,  mainly  of  the  Alexandrine  age,  was 
cleared  by  Mr.  Gardner,  on  a low  mound  to  the  north 
of  the  town,  alongside  of  the  canal ; but  it  was  not 
rich,  and  the  principal  objects  were  the  Medusa  heads, 
moulded  in  terra  cotta,  which  were  affixed  to  the 
wooden  coffins.  Probably  the  greater  part  of  it  is 
beneath  the  modern  village. 

The  potteries  of  Naukratis  were  famous  in  the  time 
of  Athenaios,  and  long  before  that  also,  as  we  see  by 
the  great  heaps  of  burnt  earth  and  potters’  waste,  and 
by  the  distinctive  style  of  much  of  the  early  pottery. 
On  comparing  the  characteristic  styles  of  this  place 
with  those  of  Defenneh,  also  inhabited  by  Greeks  of 
the  same  period,  it  is  plain  that  most  of  the  vases 
found  were  made  here  by  a local  school  of  potters. 
And  though  the  clay  is  apparently  of  Greek  origin, 
yet  it  would  be  immeasurably  easier  to  import  a ton 
of  clay  as  ballast  in  a boat,  than  to  move  about  a 
thousand  brittle  and  bulky  vases. 

We  will  now  sum  up  the  results  of  this  discovery,  in 
its  general  connection  with  other  antiquities.  The 
site  now  found  fills  a gap  in  Egyptian  geography ; 
and  it  shows  us  how  the  Greeks  were  posted  near  the 
capital  of  that  age, — Sais,  but  toward  the  Libyan 
frontier,  where  defence  was  needed  ; moreover  they 
dwelt  on  a canal,  which  could  be  used  by  Greek 
traders  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  and  which  kept 
them  apart  from  the  Egyptians  on  the  Nile.  The 
plan  of  the  town  shows  the  fort,  which  became  the 


48 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


Panhellenion,  with  a settlement  extending  along  the 

o o 

bank  of  the  canal  for  half  a mile  below  it;  amidst 
which  stood  the  temples  of  the  separate  external 
colonies  of  traders,  Milesian,  Samian,  and  Aeginetan. 


The  dedications  found  on 
the  vases  have  been  much 
discussed ; but,  viewed  in 
the  light  of  the  history  of 
the  town,  they  are  generally 
agreed  now  to  be  pro- 
bably the  earliest  Ionic 
writing  yet  known.  The 

, styles  of  the  vases  made 

34.  Negro  on  Naukratite 

Vase.  here  are  now  fixed,  and  those 

found  in  other  places  which  were  exported  from  here 

can  be  identified  ; similarly  we  now  know  the  source 

of  the  paste  scarabs  of  mock-Egyptian  design,  often 

found  in  Greek  tombs.  The  history  of  vase-painting 


35  Naukratite  Design,  i : 4. 

is  assisted  by  the  successive  periods  of  the  layers  of 
the  Apollo  remains,  which  extend  over  what  was  a 
doubtful  age;  and  the  history  of  tools  and  of  Greek 
manufactures  has  been  much  extended.  On  almost 


NAUKRATIS 


49 


every  side  this  fresh  view  of  the  early  sojourn  of  the 
Greeks  in  Egypt  has  consolidated  and  enlarged  our 
knowledge  ; and  given  for  the  first  time  an  actual 
insight  into  three  centuries  most  important  in  their 
bearing  on  Greek  development,  and  for  which  we 
were  entirely  dependent  hitherto  on  literature  and 
tradition. 


T lS< 

, j<X^ 


36.  Part  of  Embossed  Gold  Band.  About  70  a.d.  i : 2. 


37-  Ruins  of  Daphnae,  in  the  Desert. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

DAPHNAE — TAHPANHES. 

1886. 

When  I was  exploring  in  the  marshy  desert  about 
Tanis,  I saw  from  the  top  of  a mound — Tell  Ginn — a 
shimmering  grey  swell  on  the  horizon  through  the 
haze;  and  that  I was  told  was  Tell  Defenneh,  or 
rather  Def'neh,  as  it  is  called.  It  was  generally 
supposed  to  be  the  Pelusiac  Daphnae  of  Herodotos, 
and  the  Tahpanhes  of  the  Old  Testament ; but 
nothing  definite  was  known  about  it,  and  as  it  lies  in 
the  midst  of  the  desert,  between  the  Delta  and  the 
Suez  Canal,  twelve  miles  from  either,  it  was  not  very 
accessible.  After  working  at  Tell  Nebesheh  for  some 
time,  I left  it  in  Mr.  Griffith’s  hands,  and  told  my  men 
that  I wanted  to  work  at  Defneh ; immediately  I had 
more  volunteers  than  I could  employ,  and  I went  into 
the  desert  to  the  work  with  a party  of  forty, — men, 
boys  and  girls, — and  formed  a settlement  which  en- 
larged up  to  seventy.  We  pitched  on  the  old  Pelusiac 
branch,  which  is  now  rather  brackish,  and  it  was  some- 
times difficult  to  drink  the  water  : the  people,  however, 
made  the  best  of  it,  and  I never  had  a pleasanter 


DAPHNAE — TAHPANHES 


51 


time  with  my  men  than  the  two  months  I lived  there, 
independent  of  all  the  local  authorities  which  are 
generally  met  with.  No  one  was  allowed  about  the 
camp  except  the  workers,  and  I never  had  the  least 
trouble  with  them,  nor  heard  a single  squabble. 

On  reaching  the  place  I found  a wide  flat  plain 
bordering  on  the  river,  strewn  all  over  with  pottery, 
and  with  a mound  of  mud-brick  building  in  the  midst 
of  it.  I asked  the  name  of  the  mound,  and  was  told 
Kasr  Butt  el  Yehudi,  ‘the  palace  of  the  Jew’s 
daughter.’  This  at  once  brought  Tahpanhes  to  my 
mind.  Can  there  be  any  tradition  here?  I thought. 
I turned  to  Jeremiah,  and  there  read  how  he  came, 
with  Johanan,  the  son  of  Kareah,  and  all  the  officers, 
and  the  king’s  daughters,  down  to  Tahpanhes  and 
dwelt  there.  We  can  hardly  believe  that  the  only 
place  in  Egypt  where  a celebrated  daughter  of  a 
Jewish  king  lived,  was  called  in  later  times  ‘the 
palace  of  the  Jew’s  daughter’  by  accident,  especially 
as  such  a name  is  only  known  here.  Rather  has  this 
unique  name  clung  to  the  place,  as  so  many  names 
have  lasted,  as  long  or  longer,  in  Egypt  and  Syria. 
The  next  question  was,  if  any  reason  could  be  found 
for  its  possessing  a Greek  name,  Daphnae.  Soon  this 
was  settled  by  finding  an  abundance  of  Greek  pottery 
of  the  archaic  period  ; and  so  many  Greek  remains, 
and  so  little  Egyptian,  that  it  was  evident  a Greek 
camp  had  been  here.  This  then  was  the  camp  of  the 
Ionians  described  by  Herodotos  as  having  been 
founded  by  Psametichos  I on  the  Pelusiac  branch ; 
and  on  reaching  down  to  the  foundation  of  the  fort,  I 
there  took  out  the  tablets  with  the  name  of  Psamtik  I 


52 


TEN  YEARS'  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


as  the  founder.  But  Herodotos  relates  a tale  about 
Sesostris  having  been  attacked  here  by  treachery, 
suggesting  that  buildings  had  existed  here  in  Rames- 
side  times ; and  beneath  some  work  of  Psamtik  I 
found  part  of  a wall  of  baked  bricks,  such  as  were 
used  in  tombs  at  Tell  Nebesheh,  not  far  from  this, 
and  only  in  Ramesside  times.  Literature  and  dis- 
covery therefore  go  hand  in  hand  here  remarkably 
closely. 

This  place  then  appears  to  have  been  an  old  fort  on 


38.  Restoration  of  the  Fort,  showing  the  Large  Platform 

BEFORE  THE  ENTRY. 

the  Syrian  frontier  guarding  the  road  out  of  Egypt ; 
and  here  Psamtik  settled  part  of  his  ‘ brazen  men  from 
the  sea,’  and  built  a great  fortress  and  camp,  the  twin 
establishment  to  that  of  the  rest  of  the  Greek  mer- 
cenaries at  Naukratis,  on  the  Libyan  side.  The  fort 
was  a square  mass  of  brickwork,  with  deep  domed 
chambers  or  cells  in  it,  which  were  opened  from  the 
top  ; this  sustained  the  actual  dwellings  at  about  forty 
feet  above  the  plain,  so  that  a clear  view  of  the  distant 


DAPHNAE — TAHPANHES 


53 


towns  and  the  desert  could  be  seen  over  the  camp 
wall,  to  some  ten  or  twenty  miles.  The  camp  was 
defended  by  a wall  forty  feet  thick,  and  probably  as 
high  ; but  this  is  now  completely  swept  away  down 
to  the  ground  by  the  winds  and  rains.  Beneath  each 
comer  of  the  fort  was  placed  a set  of  plaques  of 
various  materials,  both  metals  and  stones,  with  the 
name  of  Psamtik,  and  at  the  south-west  corner  were 


39.  Foundation  Deposit,  i : 2. 

also  the  bones  of  a sacrifice  and  other  ceremonial 
deposits.  This  fort  was  enlarged  by  chambers  added 
to  it  during  a couple  of  generations  later  ; and  it  must 
have  been  over  that  threshold  which  still  lies  in  the 
doorway  that  the  Jewish  fugitives  entered,  when 
Hophra  gave  them  an  asylum  from  the  Assyrian 
scourge.  We  cannot  doubt  that  Tahpanhes — the  first 
place  on  the  road  into  Egypt — was  a constant  refuge 
for  the  Jews  during  the  series  of  Assyrian  invasions  ; 
especially  as  they  met  here,  not  the  exclusive 


54 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


Egyptians,  but  a mixed  foreign  population,  mostly 
Greeks.  Here  then  was  a ready  source  for  the  intro- 
duction of  Greek  words  and  names  into  Hebrew,  long 
before  the  Alexandrine  age ; and  even  before  the  fall 
of  Jerusalem  the  Greek  names  of  musical  instruments, 
and  other  words,  may  have  been  heard  in  the  courts 
of  Solomon’s  temple. 

Another  remarkable  connection  with  the  account 
given  by  Jeremiah  was  found  on  clearing  around  the 
fort.  The  entrance  was  in  the  side  of  a block  of  build- 
ing projecting  from  the  fort ; and  in  front  of  it,  on  the 
opposite  side  of  its  roadway,  similarly  projecting  from 
the  fort,  was  a large  platform  or  pavement  of  brick- 
work (see  fig.  38),  suitable  for  out-door  business,  such 
as  loading  goods,  pitching  tents,  &c., — just  what  is 
now  called  a mastaba.  Now  Jeremiah  writes  of  ‘the 
pavement  (or  brickwork)  which  is  at  the  entry  of 
Pharaoh’s  house  in  Tahpanhes’  (chap,  xliii.  9,  R.V.) ; 
this  passage,  which  has  been  an  unexplained  stumbling- 
block  to  translators  hitherto,  is  the  exact  description 
of  the  mastaba  which  I found ; and  this  would  be  the 
most  likely  place  for  Nebuchadrezzar  to  pitch  his 
royal  tent,  as  stated  by  Jeremiah. 

The  Greek  vases  found  here  show  us  an  entirely 
new  type,  derived  from  the  form  of  the  Egyptian 
metal  vases,  but  with  the  pointed  base  replaced  by  a 
circular  foot.  The  painting  and  style  of  these  vases 
are  also  unknown  elsewhere,  and  were  never  found  at 
Naukratis,  so  that  it  is  certain  that  they  were  made 
by  Daphniote  potters.  Several  other  styles  of  vases 
are  found  here,  but  it  is  very  remarkable  to  note  the 
total  difference  from  the  pottery  of  Naukratis.  If  the 

1 Vh*-  ^ ' r>  ij  (U  lx.  , 


DAPHNAE — TAHPANHES 


55 


vases  had  been  mainly  imported  to  these  settlements 
in  Egypt,  we  should  certainly  find  the  remains  much 
alike  in  two  towns  both  occupied  by  Ionians  at  the 
same  period,  and  probably  trading  with  the  same 
places ; whereas  every  style  that  is  most  common  at 
either  of  these  towns  is  almost  or  entirely  unknown  at 
the  other  town.  Such  a widespread  distinction  shows 


40.  Greek  Vase,  imitated  from  form  of  Egyptian  Metal  Vase. 

how  largely  the  pottery  was  made  by  local  schools  of 
potters,  at  the  place  where  we  find  it,  and  how  little 
of  it  was  earned  by  trade. 

The  decoration  of  some  of  the  vases  is  surprising,  as 
showing  at  what  an  early  date  some  patterns  were 
used.  On  one  vase  are  two  bands  of  design,  one  of  the 
archaic  square  volute,  and  the  other  of  the  lotus  or 


56 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


‘ palmetto  ’ pattern,  which  would  otherwise  have  been 
supposed  to  be  a century  later. 

The  greater  part  of  the  vase  fragments  were  found 
in  two  chambers  of  the  out-buildings  of  the  fort. 
These  rooms  had  been  standing  unused  by  the  Greeks, 


f 


41.  Vase  with  different  Patterns. 

and  served  for  rubbish  holes,  so  that  when  we  cleared 
them  out  every  scrape  of  the  earth  brought  up  some 
painted  fragments,  and  the  lucky  workmen  who  had 
these  places  filled  basket  after  basket  each  day.  The 
finest  vase  of  all  was  found  alone,  in  a passage  on 
the  north  of  the  fort,  and  nearly  every  fragment 


DAPHNAE — TAHPANHES 


was  secured,  ninety-nine  pieces  in  all ; it  had  been 
very  probably  a present  to  the  Egyptian  governor, 


42.  Great  Vase;  Subjects,  Boreas  and  Typhon. 

or  possibly  to  the  king  on  some  visit  there,  as  it 


58 


TEN  YEARS  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


had  traces  of  an  inscription  in  demotic  written  on 
it  with  ink. 

The  ground  of  the  camp  also  supplied  us  with  a 
large  number  of  things  ; for  although  it  would  hardly 
be  worth  while  to  dig  over  so  many  acres  exhaus- 
tively, yet  the  ground  had  been  so  much  denuded  that 
the  surface-dust  was  rich  in  small  objects.  I there- 


43.  Iron  Tools.  i,Pick;  2,  3,  Knives;  4,  Axe  ; 5,6,  Chisels; 
7,  Coulter?;  8,  9,  Horses’  Bits;  10,  11,  Chisels;  12  Knife; 
13,  Fish  Hook  ; 14,  15,  Arrow-heads  ; 16,  Rasp.  1:12. 

fore  had  it  scraped  over,  and  found  hundreds  of  arrow- 
heads of  iron  and  bronze,  iron  scale  armour,  swords, 
&c.  One  curious  find  was  turned  up  the  last  afternoon 
of  the  work  ; a large  lot  of  cut-up  lumps  of  silver,  and 
a massive  gold  handle  off  a tray,  with  lotus  ‘ palmetto  ’ 
design  ; it  had  been  violently  wrenched  off,  and  the 
question  is  where  would  a soldier  have  a chance  of 
looting  such  valuable  gold  plate  of  Egyptian  design  ? 
It  seems  not  unlikely  that  it  was  part  of  the  royal 
treasure  of  Apries,  plundered  on  his  overthrow  by 


4- 


8 


9 


DAPHNAE — TAHPANHES 


59 


Amasis.  Another  unusual  object  was  picked  up  by 
one  of  the  workmen  on  the  surface  (see  Fig.  47,  end  of 
chapter) ; it  appeared  to  be  a little  silver  box  with 
a sliding  lid.  The  lid  was  slightly  opened,  and  the 
feet  of  a gold  figure  showed  inside  it.  As  it  could 
not  be  opened  more  without  breaking  it,  I carefully 
cracked  out  one  side,  and 
took  from  it  a most 
beautiful  little  statuette 
of  Ra,  hawk-headed,  and 
then  restored  the  case 
again.  It  had  evidently 
been  a shrine  to  wear  on 
a necklace,  as  there  was 
a loop  at  the  back  of  the 
box. 

Although  all  the  stone 
buildings  had  been  de- 
stroyed, and  lines  of  chips 
alone  remained  to  show 
the  sandstone  and  lime- 
stone of  their  construc- 
tion, yet  the  larger  part 
of  a great  stele  of  sand- 
stone still  lies  there,  bear- 
ing a long  hieroglyphic 
inscription.  It  is  evident 
therefore  that  Egyptian 
interests  were  not  neg- 
lected, and  that  there  must  have  been  both  Egyptian 
and  Greek  living  side  by  side,  together  with  Phoenician 
and  Jew.  One  curious  class  of  Egyptian  remains 


LJ 

44.  Gold  Handle. 


6o 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


has  given  us  the  dates  of  some  parts  of  the  building  ; 
for  the  plaster  sealings  of  the  wine  jars  bear  the 
cartouches  of  the  king,  and  they  were  most  likely 
knocked  off  and  thrown  aside  within  a few  years  of 
being  sealed.  One  room  seemed  to  have  belonged 
to  the  royal  butler,  for  dozens  of  plaster  sealings 
of  Psamtik  were  found  together  there.  A jar  had 
been  fraudulently  opened  by  boring  through  the 


45.  Sealed  Jar  Neck,  with  name  of  Amasis. 

plaster,  and  the  pottery  stopper  below  it,  and  then 
stopping  the  hole  with  fresh  plaster.  The  prudent 
butler  had  struck  off  the  whole  neck  of  the  jar,  so  as 
to  preserve  the  proofs  of  the  theft  entire.  The 
particularity  of  the  sealing  is  remarkable ; first  the 


DAPHNAE — TAHPANHES 


6 1 


pottery  bung  was  tied  down,  and  the  string  sealed  on 
clay  by  six  inspectors : then  a plaster  cap  was  put 
over  all  that,  and  marked  with  the  royal  cartouche  in 
several  places. 

The  ruin  of  all  this  community  came  suddenly. 
Apries  trusted  to  the  Greek  mercenaries,  and  defied 
the  old  Egyptian  party  (if  indeed  he  was  king  at  all 
according  to  Egyptian  law) ; and  Amasis,  who  had 
married  the  royal  princess  (and  who  was  therefore 
a legal  ruler),  took  the  national  side,  and  ousted  his 
brother-in-law.  Civil  war  was  the  consequence,  and 
the  Greeks — though  straining  all  their  power — were 
completely  crushed  by  Amasis.  He  then  carried  out 
the  protective  policy  of  Egypt,  and  depopulated 
Daphnae,  and  all  other  Greek  settlements  excepting 
Naukratis,  which  latter  thus  became  the  only  treaty- 
port  open  to  Greek  merchants.  Hence,  as  we  can 
date  the  founding  of  Defenneh  almost  to  a year,  about 
665  B.C.,  when  Psamtik  established  his  mercenary 
camps,  so  we  can  also  date  its  fall  to  a year  in 
564  B.c.  when  Amasis  struck  down  the  Greek  trade. 
And  this  just  accords  with  what  we  find,  as  there  is 
a sudden  cessation  of  Greek  pottery  at  a stage  some- 
way before  the  introduction  of  red  figured  ware,  which 
took  place  about  490  B.C. 

It  appears  likely  that  as  Naukratis  was  the  home 
of  the  scarab  trade  to  Greece,  so  Daphnae  was  the 
home  of  the  jewellery  trade,  and  the  source  of  the 
semi-Egyptian  jewellery  so  often  found  in  Greek 
tombs.  Much  evidence  of  the  goldsmith’s  work  was 
discovered ; pieces  of  gold  ornaments,  pieces  partly 
wrought,  globules  and  scraps  of  gold,  and  a profusion 


6 2 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


of  minute  weights,  such  as  would  only  be  of  use  for 
precious  metals. 

We  see  then  that  Daphnae  is  the  complement  of 
Naukratis  : they  were  twin  cities,  and  teach  us  even 
more  by  their  contrasts  than  their  resemblances.  We 
again  reach  back,  as  at  Naukratis,  through  the  pre- 


Alexandrine  period  to  the  foundation  of  Greek  power 
in  Egypt.  We  again  find  the  interaction  of  Greek 
and  Egyptian  civilization.  We  again  see  the  rise  of 
a local  school  of  pottery,  and  have  the  great  advan- 
tage of  its  being  confined  to  just  a century,  of  which 
we  know  the  exact  limits.  On  the  Jewish  side  of  the 
history  the  arrangement  of  ‘ the  king’s  house  in 
Tahpanhes’  exactly  explains  the  narrative;  the  very 
name  of  the  place  echoes  the  sojourn  of  the  fugitive 


46.  Daphniote  Gold  Y'ork. 


DAPHNAE — TAHPANHES 


63 


heiresses  of  Judah;  and  a valuable  light  is  thrown  on 
the  early  contact  of  the  Hebrew  race  with  the  language 
and  thought  of  the  Greeks  with  whom  they  here 
dwelt. 


47.  Silver  Shrine,  and  Gold  Figure  of  Ra. 


48.  Granite  Shrine  of  Temple. 


CHAPTER  V. 

NEBESHEH. 

1886. 

While  living  at  Tanis  I heard  of  a great  stone,  and 
a cemetery,  some  miles  to  the  south  of  that  place,  and 
took  an  opportunity  of  visiting  it.  The  site,  Tell  Nebe- 
sheh,  is  a very  out-of-the-way  spot ; marshes  and 
canals  cut  it  off  from  the  rest  of  the  delta  ; and  the 
only  path  to  it  from  the  cultivated  region  is  across  a 
wide  wet  plain,  on  the  other  side  of  which  is  a wind- 
ing bank  hidden  among  the  reeds  of  the  bogs,  and 
only  to  be  found  by  a native.  After  leaving  Nau- 
kratis  I went  to  this  place,  to  try  to  clear  up  its  his- 
tory ; and  Mr.  Griffith  finished  the  work  here,  after  I 
had  moved  on  to  fresh  discoveries.  The  great  stone 
was  seen  to  be  a monolith  shrine,  and  therefore 
probably  a temple  lay  around  it.  As  I walked  over 
the  mounds,  I saw  that  the  tufts  of  reedy  grass  came 
to  an  end  along  a straight  line,  the  other  side  of  which 
was  bare  earth.  This  pointed  out  the  line  of  the  en- 


NEBESHEH 


65 


closing  wall  of  the  temple,  which  I soon  tracked  round 
on  all  sides.  In  the  middle  of  one  side  the  mound 
dipped  down,  and  a few  limestone  chips  lay  about. 
Here  I dug  for  the  entrance  pylon  and  before  long  we 
found  the  lower  stones  of  it  left  in  position ; on  clear- 
ing it  out  a statue  of  Ramessu  II,  larger  than  life,  was 
found,  and  fragments  of  its  fellow;  also  a sphinx, 
likewise  in  black  granite,  which  had  been  so  often  re- 
appropriated  by  various  kings,  that  the  original  maker 
could  hardly  be  traced.  Probably  of  the  twelfth 
dynasty  to  begin  with,  it  had  received  a long  inscrip- 
tion around  the  base  from  an  official  (the  importance  of 
which  we  shall  see  presently),  and  later  on  six  other 
claimants  seized  it  in  succession.  Outside  of  the 
pylon  there  had  been  an  approach,  of  which  one  orna- 
ment remained  ; this  is  an  entirely  fresh  design,  being 
a column  without  any  capital,  but  supporting  a large 
hawk  overshadowing  the  king  Merenptah,  who  kneels 
before  it.  The  sides  of  the  column  are  inscribed. 

The  ground  all  around  the  monolith  shrine  was  dug 
over  by  us.  Directly  beneath  the  shrine  the  granite 
pavement  and  its  substructure  remains  entire;  but 
over  the  rest  of  the  area  only  the  bed  of  the  founda- 
tion can  be  traced,  all  the  stone  having  been  removed. 
Near  the  place  of  the  entrance  lay  the  throne  of  a 
statue  of  Usertesen  III,  probably  one  of  a pair  by  the 
door,  and  showing  that  a temple  had  existed  as  far 
back  as  the  twelfth  dynasty.  The  foundation  deposits 
in  the  corners  I had  to  get  out  from  beneath  the  water  ; 
they  were  plaques  of  metals  and  stones,  with  the 
name  of  Aahmes  Si-nit,  and  pottery,  showing  that  the 
temple  had  been  built  in  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty. 

F 


66 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


Among  the  ruins  was  found  part  of  the  black  granite 
statue  of  the  goddess  Uati,  which  had  doubtless  stood 
in  the  monolith  shrine  as  the  great  image  of  the 
temple. 


Silver. 


c*  r e c n C*  l cl  2.  e. 

49.  Foundation  Deposit,  i : 2. 


At  the  back  of  the  shrine  lay  a black  granite  altar 
of  Usertesen  III,  which,  like  the  sphinx,  had  received 
an  inscription  by  an  official  at  a later  time.  These 
added  inscriptions  are  of  value,  although  they  have 
been  nearly  effaced  by  subsequent  kings  ; they  show 
that  in  the  dark  times  before  the  eighteenth  dynasty 
(for  by  their  rudeness  they  fall  in  that  age),  certain 
royal  chancellors  could  venture  to  usurp  the  monu- 
ments of  previous  kings.  This  could  hardly  have 
been  possible  if  the  king  of  that  period  cared  for  the 
monuments;  and  we  probably  see  in  these  chancellors 
the  native  viziers  of  the  Hyksos  kings,  who  were  also 
apparently  reckoned  by  the  Egyptians  as  their  rulers, 
and  entered  with  ephemeral  reigns  of  a year  or  two 
in  the  lists  of  the  fourteenth  dynasty.  It  was  this 
vice-royalty  that  was  conferred  on  Joseph,  when  the 
royal  signet  was  given  to  him,  and  he  had  the  honour 
of  the  second  chariot. 

But  it  was  evident  that  some  temple  had  existed 


NEBESHEH 


67 


here  before  Aahmes,  as  the  monuments  were  of  earlier 
ages  ; and  on  looking  at  the  plan  it  is  seen  that  his 
temple  is  not  in  the  middle  of  the  enclosure,  nor  is  it 
in  the  line  of  the  axis,  but  at  right  angles  to  it.  I 
therefore  searched  for  the  first  temple  about  the  midst 
of  the  area,  but  for  a long  time  nothing  appeared  be- 
sides chips.  At  last  a mass  of  sand  was  found  with  a 
vertical  face,  and  this  I at  once  recognised  as  the  sand 


bed  laid  in  the  earth,  on  which  the  walls  of  the  temple 
had  been  founded.  It  was  covered  with  about  twelve 
feet  of  dust  and  chips,  but  by  sinking  pits  at  intervals 
it  was  traced  all  round  the  whole  extent  of  the  for- 
mer temple.  The  foundation  deposits  were  unattain- 
able, as  they  were  too  deep  beneath  the  water  level, 
and  the  great  sand  bed  collects  the  water  so  readily 
that  it  could  not  be  kept  down  more  than  three  feet 
by  baling. 

F 2 


68 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


The  cemetery  was  the  other  object  at  this  place. 
It  proved  to  be  of  tolerable  extent,  about  half  a mile 
long  ; but  the  earliest  tomb  found  was  of  Ramesside 
age.  Most  of  the  burials  were  of  the  twenty-sixth  to  the 
thirtieth  dynasties,  and  the  rarity  of  earlier  interments 
was  explained  by  the  condition  of  those  which  re- 
main. The  tomb  chambers  were  all  subterranean,  yet 
most  of  them  were  found  roofless,  though  level  with 
the  ground ; of  some,  only  a few  bricks  remained  at 
the  sides  ; very  few  were  still  complete  with  a brick 


vault.  In  fact  they  were  in  every  stage  of  removal, 
owing  to  the  denudation  of  the  sand  ground  in  which 
they  were  placed.  The  inference  is  only  too  evident, 
that  the  earlier  tombs  have  simply  been  denuded 
wholly  away,  below  the  last  brick  of  the  walls.  Many 
of  the  chambers  were  excavated,  but  only  in  a few  of 
them  were  any  ushabti  figures  found.  Some  of  them 
were  sumptuous  buildings  of  limestone  ; but  mostly 
they  were  of  the  mud  bricks,  both  in  the  walls  and  the 


8 


51.  Lykaonian  Spearheads  and  Vases. 


NEBESHEH 


69 


arched  roofing.  The  most  interesting  class  were  those 
of  Lykaonian  mercenaries  ; most  likely  from  an  out- 
post of  the  Daphnae  camp,  stationed  here.  In  those 
tombs  there  were  no  ushabtis  ; the  bodies  lay  north 
and  south,  instead  of  east  and  west,  as  in  the  Egyp- 
tian tombs  ; there  were  bronze  and  sometimes  iron 
spear- heads,  and  curious  forked  spear-heads,  like  that 
on  a funeral  stele  at  Iconium  ; and  moreover,  Cypriote 
pottery,  generally  pilgrim  bottles. 

While  working  in  the  cemetery  we  found  one  un- 
rifled tomb,  containing  four  mummies,  with  their 
sets  of  amulets  intact.  These  I carefully  took  off  the 
bodies,  noting  the  position  of  every  object,  so  that  I 
could  afterwards  rearrange  them  in  their  original 
order  exactly  as  found.  But  the  greatest  discovery 
here  in  point  of  size  was  a great  tomb  formed  by  a 
brick-walled  yard  or  enclosure  sunk  in  the  ground. 
Within  this  were  two  limestone  sarcophagi  inscribed, 
and  a splendid  basalt  sarcophagus,  highly  wrought,  and 
with  a long  inscription ; this  was  encased  in  a huge 
block  of  limestone  for  protection,  and  it  required  much 
work  to  break  this  away  when  Count  D’Hulst  removed 
it  to  London.  These  sarcophagi  were  for  a family 
who  held  offices  in  the  Egyptian  town  of  Am  ; another 
sarcophagus  found  near  these  also  named  Am,  and  a 
piece  of  a statuette  from  the  temple  gave  the  same 
name.  From  these  many  different  sources  it  appears 
that  Am  was  the  name  of  Tell  Nebesheh  ; especially 
as  Uati  was  the  goddess  of  Am,  and  hers  was  the 
statue  of  the  great  shrine  and  temple  here.  This  gives 
a fresh  point  in  the  geography  of  ancient  Egypt, 
and  explains  what  Herodotos  means  by  the  Arabian 


7o 


TEN  YEARS'  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


Buto,  in  contrast  to  the  other  Buto  (or  ‘Temple  of 
Uati  ’)  in  the  western  half  of  the  delta. 


52.  Ushabti  Figures,  Twentieth  Dynasty.  1:8. 


53-  A Nile  Morning. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

UP  THE  NILE 

1887. 

When  in  the  end  of  1886  I went  to  Egypt,  I had 
no  excavations  in  prospect,  having  bid  good-bye  to 
the  Fund  ; but  I had  promised  to  take  photographs 
for  the  British  Association,  and  I had  much  wished 
to  see  Upper  Egypt  in  a more  thorough  way  than 
during  a hurried  dahabiyeh  trip  to  Thebes  in  1882. 
To  this  end  my  friend  Mr.  Griffith  joined  me.  We 
hired  a small  boat  with  a cabin  at  Minia,  and  took 
six  weeks  wandering  up  to  Assuan,  walking  most  of 
the  way  in  and  out  of  the  line  of  cliffs.  Thus  we 
saw  much  that  is  outside  of  the  usual  course,  and 
spent  afterwards  ten  days  at  Assuan,  and  three  weeks 
at  Thebes,  in  tents.  On  coming  down  the  Nile  I 


73  TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

walked  along  the  eastern  shore  from  Wasta  to  Mem- 
phis, but  found  it  a fruitless  region.  Lastly,  I lived 
several  weeks  at  Dahshur,  for  surveying  the  pyramids 
there. 

Assuan  proved  a most  interesting  district,  teeming 
with  early  inscriptions  cut  on  the  rocks ; and  to  copy 
all  of  these  was  a long  affair.  Every  day  we  went 
out  with  rope-ladder,  bucket,  and  squeeze-paper,  as 
early  as  we  could,  and  returned  in  the  dusk ; so  at 
last  some  two  hundred  inscriptions  were  secured, 
many  of  which  were  of  importance,  and  quite  un- 
noticed before.  These  carvings  are  some  of  them 
notices  of  royal  affairs,  but  mostly  funereal  lists  of 
offerings  for  the  benefit  of  various  deceased  persons. 
They  abound  most  in  the  eleventh,  twelfth,  and  thir- 
teenth dynasties,  though  some  of  them  are  later ; and 
one  records  queen  Amenardus,  and  another  Psamtik  II, 
of  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty.  Their  main  interest  is 
in  the  great  number  of  personal  names  which  they 
preserve,  and  the  relationships  stated.  We  see  that 
the  father  is  often  not  named  at  all,  and  the  father’s 
family  is  scarcely  ever  noticed  ; while  on  the  mother’s 
side  the  relations  extend  even  to  second  cousins.  To 
decipher  these  records  is  sometimes  a hard  matter, 
when  they  are  very  rudely  chipped — or  rather  bruised 
— on  the  rough  granite  rocks  ; and  continually  we 
used  to  consult  and  dispute  about  some  sign  for  long 
enough  to  copy  all  the  rest  of  the  inscription.  Some 
of  them  are,  however,  beautifully  engraved,  and  quite 
monumental  in  style.  The  most  striking,  perhaps,  is 
a rock  on  the  island  of  Elephantine,  which  had  never 
been  noticed  before,  although  in  the  pathway.  It 


UP  THE  NILE 


73 


was  a sort  of  royal  album  begun  by  Ra-kha-nefer 
(fifth  dynasty);  followed  by  Unas  (fifth),  who  carved 
a handsome  tablet.  Then  Ra-meri  Pepi  (sixth)  appro- 
priated Ra-kha-nefer’s  inscription  ; Ra-nefer-ka  Pepi 
next  carved  a tablet ; in  later  times,  of  the  eleventh 
dynasty,  Antef-aa  II  followed  with  another  tablet  '; 
and  lastly  Amenemhat  I (twelfth  dynasty)  placed  the 
sixth  inscription  here. 


at  Gebel  Silsileh.  Among  these  was  a Phoenician 
inscription,  one  of  the  very  few  known  in  Egypt ; and 
some  curious  quarry  records  of  Roman  age.  The 
main  inscription  of  this  region  is,  however,  one  very 
seldom  seen,  even  by  antiquaries,  as  it  is  in  a valley 


54.  Tablets  of  Kings,  Fifth  to  Twelfth 
Dynasties.  1:40. 


Not  only  were  there  these  gra- 
nite inscriptions  to  be  copied, 
but  also  a great  number  of 
graffiti  and  travellers’  names  on 
the  sandstone  rocks,  principally 


55-  An  Inscribed  Rock  at  Silsii.eh 


UP  THE  NILE 


75 


where  no  one  stops.  It  portrays  Antef  V and  his 
vizier  Khati  worshipping  Mentuhotep  IV  and  his 
wife.  Near  it  is  another,  smaller,  tablet  with  the 
worship  of  the  same  king  ; and  up  the  valley  we  dis- 
covered a tablet  with  the  worship  of  Sankh-ka-ra,  all 
of  the  eleventh  dynasty.  All  over  this  district  are 
many  rude  figures  of  animals,  marked  on  the  rocks  by 
hammering : they  are  of  various  ages,  some  perhaps 
modern,  but  the  earlier  ones  certainly  before  the 
eighteenth  dynasty;  and,  to  judge  by  the  weathering 
of  the  rock,  it  seems  probable  that  they  were  begun 
here  long  before  any  of  the  monuments  of  Egypt  that 
we  know.  The  usual  figures  are  of  men,  horses,  and 
boats,  but  there  are  also  camels,  ostriches  and  ele- 
phants to  be  seen. 


57.  Animal  Figures  at  Silsileh. 

On  the  desert  hills  behind  Esneh  I found  what  is — 
so  far — the  oldest  thing  known  from  Egypt.  In  pre- 
historic days  the  Nile  used  to  fill  the  whole  breadth  of 
the  valley,  to  a depth  of  a couple  of  hundred  feet,  fed 
with  the  heavy  rainfall  that  carved  back  the  valleys 
all  along  the  river  by  great  waterfalls,  the  precipices 
of  which  now-  stand  stark  and  arid  in  the  bleaching 
sun.  In  those  days  flourished  the  forests,  which  lie 
now  silicified  in  the  silent  desert.  At  Esneh  the 
desert  hills  are  several  miles  from  the  Nile,  and  on  a 
spur  of  one — where  probably  no  man  sets  foot  for  cen- 


From  Harper's  Magazine.  Copyright,  1888,  by  Harper  & Brothers. 


59.  People  of  Pun,  S.  Arabia. 


UP  THE  NILE 


77 


turies  at  a time — I found  lying  a palaeolithic  wrought 
flint.  It  was  about  a couple  of  hundred  feet  above 
the  Nile,  and  being  clearly  a river-worn  object,  it  had 
been  left  there  in  the  old  time  of  the  Great  Nile. 
The  flints  found  by  General  Pitt-Rivers  at  Thebes 
belong  to  a later  age,  when  the  Nile  had  fallen  to 
almost  its  present  level.  But  those  are  far  older  than 


From  Harper’s  Magazine.  Copyright,  18S8,  by  Harper  & Brothers. 


60.  Hanebu,  Early  Greek. 

any  monuments  known  to  us.  We  see  then  two  stages 
before  the  beginning  of  what  we  can  call  history. 

At  Thebes  my  main  work  was  in  obtaining  casts 
and  photographs  of  all  the  types  of  foreign  races  on 
the  monuments.  For  making  ethnographical  com- 
parisons we  were,  until  then,  dependent  on  drawings, 
which  were  often  incorrect.  Now  we  have  nearly  two 


?8 


TEN  YEARS'  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


hundred  photographs,  all  with  the  same  size  of  head, 
giving  several  examples  of  each  race  that  was  repre- 
sented by  the  Egyptians. 

In  most  cases  it  would  have  been  difficult  to  photo- 
graph the  sculptures  directly,  owing  to  the  difficulties 
of  placing  the  camera,  and  the  exact  time  of  the 


61.  Entrance  of  South  Pyramid.  Casing  destroyed  below  it. 

day  required  for  the  oblique  sunlight.  Paper  squeezes 
were  therefore  taken  in  preference,  and  a box  of  these, 
weighing  a few  pounds,  served  as  moulds  for  pro- 
ducing in  England  a set  of  plaster  casts  which  weighed 
a hundred  times  as  much.  By  waxing  the  paper 
several  successive  casts  can  be  made  from  one  mould, 
and  from  a set  of  the  castg  I took  photographs,  which 


UP  THE  NILE 


79 


can  be  printed  interminably,  and  which  are  far  more 
clear  and  distinct  than  if  they  were  made  directly 
from  the  stained  and  darkened  sculptures.  The 
paintings  were  of  course  photographed  directly ; 
where  near  the  outer  air  enough  light  was  obtained 
by  reflectors  of  tinned  plate ; but  in  distant  interiors, 
such  as  the  tombs  of  the  kings,  an  explosion  of  the 
proper  amount  of  magnesium  powder,  mixed  with 
chlorate  of  potash,  gave  excellent  results  for  light. 

Having  finished  the  Theban  work,  I then  went  to 


62.  North  Pyramid,  and  Southern  in  Distance. 

Dahshur,  and  there  made  a survey  around  the  two 
large  pyramids  ; but  unfortunately  I could  not  obtain 
the  permission  to  uncover  the  bases  of  the  pyramids 
in  time  to  measure  more  than  the  southern  one.  This 
pyramid  is  interesting,  as  it  retains  the  original  casing 
over  most  of  it,  and  gives  us  some  idea  of  what  the 
other  pyramids  looked  like  before  the  plundering  by 
Arabs,  and  perhaps  older  thieves.  The  outside  is 
peculiar,  as  being  of  a steeper  angle  below  than  above, 
and  hence  it  is  often  called  the  ‘blunted  pyramid.’ 


8o 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


The  results  of  the  survey  were  that  it  was  all  designed 
in  even  numbers  of  cubits.  The  base  was  360  cubits, 
the  height  200,  divided  into  90  cubits  steep,  and  no 
cubits  of  flatter  slope.  The  space  walled  in  around  it 
was  100  cubits  wide.  Another  small  pyramid  on  the 
south  of  it  was  100  cubits  square. 

While  at  Dahshur  I also  found  an  interesting  point 
about  the  ancient  roads.  The  road  from  Sakkara  to 
the  oasis  of  Ammon  was  marked  out  by  banks  of 
gravel  swept  up  on  either  side,  leaving  a clear  space 
50  cubits  wide.  The  other  road  from  Sakkara  to  the 
Fayum  was  marked  out  by  milestones  all  along,  there 
being  a larger  tablet  at  each  schoenus,  or  4 miles,  while 
at  each  1000  cubits,  or  third  of  a mile,  was  a lesser 
pillar  on  a stone  socket. 


63.  Way-marks  on  Fayum  Road. 


64.  Pyramid  of  Hawara 


CHAPTER  VII. 

HAWARA. 

1888. 

When  considering  the  places  favourable  for  future 
excavations  I had  named  Hawara  and  Illahun,  amongst 
other  sites,  to  M.  Grebaut ; and  he  proposed  to  me 
that  I should  work  in  the  Fayum  province  in  general. 
The  exploration  of  the  pyramids  of  this  district  was 
my  main  object,  as  their  arrangement,  their  date,  and 
their  builders  were  quite  unknown.  Hawara  was  not 
a convenient  place  to  work  at,  as  the  village  was  two 
miles  from  the  pyramid,  and  a canal  lay  between  ; I 
therefore  determined  to  form  a camp  of  workmen  to 
live  on  the  spot,  as  at  Daphnae.  For  this  purpose  I 
needed  to  recruit  a party  from  a little  distance,  and 
began  my  work  therefore  at  the  ancient  Arsinoe  or  Cro- 
codilopolis,  close  to  Medinet  el  Fayum.  Here  I cleared 
the  pylon  of  the  temple,  of  which  a few  disturbed 
blocks  remain,  and  found  a second  mention  of  Am- 
enemhat  II  beside  that  already  known ; but  his  work 

G 


82  TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

had  all  been  altered  and  rebuilt,  probably  by  Ramessu 
II.  Four  or  five  different  levels  of  building  and 
reconstruction  could  be  traced,  and 
the  depth  of  rubbish  over  the  approach 
to  the  temple  in  the  shallowest  part 
of  the  mounds  was  twenty-four  feet. 
Within  the  great  enclosure  of  mud- 
brick  wall,  the  site  of  the  temple 
could  be  traced  by  following  the  bed 
of  sand,  on  which  the  foundations 
had  been  laid  ; but  scarcely  a single 
stone  was  left,  One  reused  block 
had  a figure  of  a king  of  the  nine- 
teenth dynasty,  probably  Ramessu 
II  ; and  this  leads  us  to  date  as  late 
as  Ptolemy  II  the  temple  which  we 
can  trace  here.  He  doubtless  built 
a large  temple,  as  the  place  received 
much  attention  in  his  time,  and  was 
dedicated  to  his  sister-wife  Arsinoe ; 
she  was  specially  worshipped  along 
with  the  great  gods,  as  we  know  from 
the  stele  of  Pithom.  The  only  early 
objects  found  here  were  flint  knives 
in  the  soil  of  the  temple  ; these  belong  to  the  twelfth 
dynasty,  as  we  know  from  later  discoveries. 

A short  work  of  a few  days  at  Biahmu  resolved  the 
questions  about  the  so-called  pyramids  there.  So 
soon  as  we  began  to  turn  over  the  soil  we  found  chips 
of  sandstone  colossi ; the  second  day  the  gigantic 
nose  of  a colossus  was  found,  as  broad  as  a man’s 
body ; then  pieces  of  carved  thrones,  and  a fragment 


HAWARA 


83 


of  inscription  of  Amenemhat  III.  It  was  evident  that 
the  two  great  piles  of  stone  had  been  the  pedestals  of 


66.  Pedestals  of  Biahmu. 

colossal  seated  monolithic  statues,  carved  in  hard 
quartzite  sandstone,  and  brilliantly  polished.  These 


67.  Wall  of  Court. 

statues  faced  northward,  and  around  each  was  a court- 
yard wall  with  sloping  outer  face,  and  red  granite 


84 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


gateway  in  the  north  front.  The  total  height  of  the 
colossi  was  about  sixty  feet  from  the  ground.  The 
limestone  pedestal  rose  twenty-one  feet,  then  the  sand- 
stone colossus  had  a base  of  four  feet,  on  which  the 
figure,  seated  on  its  throne,  rose  to  a height  of  thirty- 
five  feet  more.  Thus  the  whole  statue  and  part  of  its 
pedestal  would  be  visible  above  the  enclosing  courtyard 
wall,  and  it  would  appear  from  a distance  as  if  it  were 


68.  Section  of  Court,  with  Statue. 
placed  on  a truncated  pyramid.  The  description  of 
Herodotos,  therefore,  is  fully  accounted  for ; and  it 
shows  that  he  actually  saw  the  figures,  though  from  a 
distance,  as  any  person  who  visited  them  closely 
would  not  have  described  them  in  such  a manner. 

Having  by  this  time  formed  and  organised  a good 
body  of  workmen,  I moved  over  to  Hawara,  with  as 
many  men  as  I wanted  ; and  the  only  difficulty  was 
to  restrain  the  numbers  who  wished  to  work.  The 
pyramid  had  never  been  entered  in  modern  times,  and 


HAWARA 


85 


its  arrangement  was  wholly  unknown  ; explorers  had 
fruitlessly  destroyed  much  of  the  brickwork  on  the 
north  side,  but  yet  the  entrance  was  undiscovered.  In 
Roman  times  the  stone  casing  had  been  removed, 
and  as  the  body  of  the  structure  was  of  mud  bricks,  it 
had  crumbled  away  somewhat ; each  side  was  there- 
fore encumbered  with  chips  and  mud.  After  vainly 
searching  the  ground  on  the  north  side  for  any 
entrance,  I then  cleared  the  middle  of  the  east  side, 
but  yet  no  trace  of  any  door  could  be  found.  As  it 
was  evident  then  that  the  plan  was  entirely  different 
to  that  of  any  known  pyramid,  and  it  would  be  a 
hopeless  task  to  clear  all  the  ground  around  it,  I 
therefore  settled  to  tunnel  to  the  midst.  This  work 
was  very  troublesome,  as  the  large  bricks  were  laid  in 
sand,  and  rather  widely  spaced  ; hence  as  soon  as 
any  were  removed,  the  sand  was  liable  to  pour 
out  of  the  joints,  and  to  loosen  all  the  surrounding 
parts.  The  removal  of  each  brick  was  therefore  done 
as  quietly  as  possible,  and  I had  to  go  in  three  times 
a day  and  insert  more  roofing  boards,  a matter  which 
needed  far  more  skill  and  care  than  a native  workman 
would  use.  After  many  weeks’  work  (for  there  was 
only  room  for  one  man),  I found  that  we  were  halfway 
through,  but  all  in  brick.  On  one  side  of  the  tunnel, 
however,  I saw  signs  of  a built  wall,  and  guessing  that 
it  had  stood  around  the  pit  made  for  the  chamber 
during  the  building,  I examined  the  rock-floor,  and 
found  that  it  sloped  down  slightly,  away  from  the 
wall.  We  turned  then  to  the  west,  and  tunnelling 
onwards,  we  reached  the  great  roofing  beams  of  the 
chamber  in  a few  days.  No  masons  of  the  district, 


86 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


however,  could  cut  through  them,  and  I had  to  leave 
the  work  till  the  next  season.  Then,  after  a further 
search  on  all  the  four  sides  for  the  entrance,  the 
masons  attacked  the  sloping  stone  roof,  and  in  two  or 
three  weeks’  time  a hole  beneath  them  was  reported  ; 
anxiously  I watched  them  enlarge  it  until  I could 
squeeze  through,  and  then  I entered  the  chamber 
above  the  sepulchre  ; at  one  side  I saw  a lower  hole, 
and  going  down  I found  a broken  way  into  the  sand- 
stone sepulchre,  but  too  narrow  for  my  shoulders. 
After  sounding  the  water  inside  it,  a boy  was  put 
down  with  a rope-ladder ; and  at  last,  on  looking 
through  the  hole,  I could  see  by  the  light  of  his  candle 
the  two  sarcophagi,  standing  rifled  and  empty.  In  a 
day  or  two  we  cleared  away  the  rubbish  from  the 
original  entrance  passage  to  the  chamber,  and  so  w'ent 
out  into  the  passages,  which  turned  and  wandered  up 
and  down.  These  were  so  nearly  choked  with  mud, 
that  in  many  parts  the  only  way  along  them  was  by 
lying  flat,  and  sliding  along  the  mud,  pushed  by 
fingers  and  toes.  In  this  way,  sliding,  crawling,  and 
wading,  I reached  as  near  to  the  outer  mouth  of  the 
passage  as  possible  ; and  then  by  measuring  back  to 
the  chamber,  the  position  of  the  mouth  on  the  outside 
of  the  pyramid  was  pretty  nearly  found.  But  so  deep 
was  it  under  the  rubbish,  and  so  much  encumbered 
with  large  blocks  of  stone,  that  it  took  about  a 
fortnight  to  reach  it  from  the  outside. 

The  pyramid  had  been  elaborately  arranged  so  as 
to  deceive  and  weary  the  spoiler,  and  it  had  apparently 
occupied  a great  amount  of  labour  to  force  an  entrance. 
The  mouth  was  on  the  ground  level,  on  the  south  side, 


HAWARA 


87 


a quarter  of  the  length  from  the  south-west  corner. 
The  original  explorers  descended  a passage  with  steps 
to  a chamber,  from  which  apparently  there  was  no 
exit.  The  roof  consisted  of  a sliding  trap-door,  how- 
ever, and  breaking  through  this  another  chamber  was 


reached  at  a higher  level.  Then  a passage  opened  to 
the  east,  closed  with  a wooden  door,  and  leading  to 
another  chamber  with  a trap-door  roof.  But  in  front 
of  the  explorer  was  a passage  carefully  plugged  up 
solid  with  stone  ; this  they  thought  would  lead  to  the 


88 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


prize,  and  so  all  the  stones  were  mined  through,  only 
to  lead  to  nothing.  From  the  second  trap-door 
chamber  a passage  led  northward  to  the  third  such 
chamber.  From  that  a passage  led  west  to  a chamber 
with  two  wells,  which  seemed  as  if  they  led  to  the 
tomb,  but  both  were  false.  This  chamber  also  was 
almost  filled  with  masonry,  which  all  concealed  noth- 
ing, but  had  given  plenty  of  occupation  to  the  spoilers 
who  removed  it  in  vain.  A filled-up  trench  in  the  floor 
of  the  chamber  really  led  to  the  sepulchre  ; but  arriving 
there  no  door  was  to  be  found,  as  the  entrance  had 
been  by  the  roof,  an  enormous  block  of  which  had 
been  let  down  into  place  to  close  the  chamber.  So  at 
last  the  way  had  been  forced  by  breaking  away  a hole 
in  the  edge  of  the  glassy-hard  sandstone  roofing 
block,  and  thus  reaching  the  chamber  and  its  sarco- 
phagi. By  a little  widening  of  the  spoilers’  hole  I 
succeeded  in  getting  through  it  into  the  chamber. 
The  water  was  up  to  the  middle  of  my  body,  and  so 
exploration  was  difficult ; but  the  floor  was  covered 
with  rubbish  and  chips,  which  might  contain  parts  of 
the  funereal  vessels,  and  therefore  needed  searching. 
The  rubbish  in  the  sarcophagi  I cleared  out  myself ; 
and  then  I set  some  lads  to  gather  up  the  scraps  from 
the  floor  on  the  flat  blade  of  a hoe  (as  it  was  out  of 
arms’  reach  under  water),  and  after  searching  them 
they  threw  them  into  the  sarcophagi.  Thus  we 
anxiously  worked  on  for  any  inscribed  fragments  ; my 
anxiety  being  for  the  cartouche  of  the  king,  the  boys’ 
anxiety  for  the  big  bakhshish  promised,  at  per  hiero- 
glyph found,  extra  value  given  for  cartouches.  The 
system  worked,  for  in  the  first  day  I got  the  coveted 


7i.  Altar  of  Neferu-ptah. 


9o 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


prize,  a piece  of  an  alabaster  vessel  with  the  name  of 
Amenemhat  III,  proving  finally  to  whom  the  pyramid 
belonged  ; and  other  parts  of  inscribed  vessels  were 
found.  Still  there  was  a puzzle  as  to  the  second 
sarcophagus,  which  had  been  built  up  between  the 
great  central  one  and  the  chamber  side.  On  clearing 
in  the  chamber  which  led  to  the  sepulchre,  however, 
they  found  a beautiful  altar  of  offerings  in  alabaster, 
covered  with  figures  of  the  offerings  all  named,  over  a 
hundred  in  all,  and  dedicated  for  the  king’s  daughter, 
Neferu-ptah  ; near  it  were  parts  of  several  bowls  in  the 
form  of  half  a trussed  duck,  also  bearing  her  name  : so 
doubtless  the  second  interment  was  hers ; and  she 
must  have  died  during  her  father’s  life,  and  before  the 
closing  of  the  pyramid.  Of  the  actual  bodies  I found 
a few  scraps  of  charred  bones,  besides  bits  of  charcoal 
and  grains  of  burnt  diorite  in  the  sarcophagi also  a 
beard  of  lazuli  for  inlaying  was  found  in  the  chamber. 
The  wooden  inner  coffins,  inlaid  with  hard  stone 
carving,  had  therefore  been  burnt.  The  chamber 
itself  is  a marvellous  work  ; nearly  the  whole  height 
of  it  is  carved  out  of  a single  block  of  hard  quartzite 
sandstone,  forming  a huge  tank,  in  which  the  sar- 
cophagus was  placed.  In  the  inside  it  is  twenty- 
two  feet  long  and  nearly  eight  feet  wide,  while  the 
sides  are  about  three  feet  thick.  The  surface  is 
polished,  and  the  corners  so  sharply  cut  that  I mistook 
it  for  masonry,  until  I searched  in  vain  for  the  joints. 
Of  course  it  was  above  water  level  originally  ; but  all 
this  region  has  been  saturated  by  a high  level  canal  of 
Arab  times.  Afterwards  I had  all  the  earth  removed 
from  the  pyramid  passages  as  far  as  practicable,  but 


HAWARA 


9T 


nothing  further  was  found  there.  No  trace  of  inscrip- 
tion exists  on  either  the  walls  or  sarcophagi ; and  but 
for  the  funereal  furniture,  even  the  very  name  would  not 
have  been  recovered. 

Though  the  pyramid  was  the  main  object  at 
Hawara,  it  was  but  a lesser  part  of  my  work  there. 
On  the  south  of  the  pyramid  lay  a wide  mass  of 
chips  and  fragments  of  building,  which  had  long 
been  generally  identified  with  the  celebrated  laby- 
rinth. Doubts,  however,  existed,  mainly  owing  to 
Lepsius  having  considered  the  brick  buildings  on  the 
site  to  have  been  part  of  the  labyrinth.  When  I 
began  to  excavate  the  result  was  soon  plain,  that  the 
brick  chambers  were  built  on  the  top  of  the  ruins  of 
a great  stone  structure  ; and  hence  they  were  only 
the  houses  of  a village,  as  they  had  at  first  appeared 
to  me  to  be.  But  beneath  them,  and  far  away  over 
a vast  area,  the  layers  of  stone  chips  were  found  ; and 
so  great  was  the  mass  that  it  was  difficult  to  persuade 
visitors  that  the  stratum  was  artificial,  and  not  a 
natural  formation.  Beneath  all  these  fragments  was 
a uniform  smooth  bed  of  beton  or  plaster,  on  which 
the  pavement  of  the  building  had  been  laid  : while 
on  the  south  side,  where  the  canal  had  cut  across  the 
site,  it  could  be  seen  how  the  chip  stratum,  about  six 
feet  thick,  suddenly  ceased,  at  what  had  been  the 
limits  of  the  building.  No  trace  of  architectural 
arrangement  could  be  found,  to  help  in  identifying 
this  great  structure  with  the  labyrinth : but  the  mere 
extent  of  it  proved  that  it  was  far  larger  than  any 
temple  known  in  Egypt.  All  the  temples  of  Karnak, 
of  Luxor,  and  a few  on  the  western  side  of  Thebes, 


92 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


might  be  placed  together  within  the  vast  space  of 
these  buildings  at  Hawara.  We  know  from  Pliny 
and  others,  how  for  centuries  the  labyrinth  had  been 
a great  quarry  for  the  whole  district ; and  its  destruc- 
tion occupied  such  a body  of  masons,  that  a small 
town  existed  there.  All  this  information,  and  the 
recorded  position  of  it,  agrees  so  closely  with  what 
we  can  trace,  that  no  doubt  can  now  remain  regarding 
the  position  of  one  of  the  wonders  of  Egypt. 

The  cemetery  of  Hawara  was  a great  resource  for 
discoveries,  and  it  proved  to  be  one  of  the  richest 
fields  that  I have  found,  although  it  was  entirely  an 
unexpected  prize.  The  oldest  tombs,  of  the  pyramid 
time,  had  all  been  ruined  ages  ago,  and  the  pits  reused 
for  the  nineteenth  dynasty,  the  Ptolemaic  times,  and 
crocodile  burial  of  the  Roman  age.  But  some  slabs 
from  the  stone  chapels  on  the  surface  had  fallen  down 
the  tomb  shafts,  and  were  thus  preserved. 

The  oldest  unravaged  tomb  was  of  about  the  end 
- of  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty  ; and  that  was  a treasury 
of  amulets,  being  the  funeral  vault  of  the  family  of  a 
great  noble,  Horuta.  It  was  half  inundated,  the  water 
being  thigh  deep,  and  though  all  woodwork  and  stucco 
was  spoilt,  yet  the  amulets  of  stone,  and  some  of 
pottery,  were  uninjured.  The  great  interment  was 
that  of  Horuta  himself.  In  a side  chamber,  branching 
from  the  large  chamber,  a huge  sarcophagus  of  hard 
and  tough  limestone  had  been  placed,  containing  three 
successive  coffins  of  wood.  This  was  built  in  solidly 
with  masonry  all  around  it,  filling  up  the  whole 
chamber,  so  that  its  very  existence  was  hardly  to  be 
suspected  by  anyone  in  the  large  chamber.  To  clear 


HAWARA 


93 


this  out  in  such  a position  was  hard  work ; a party  of 
good  hands  were  steadily  labouring  at  it,  mainly  by 
contract,  for  two  or  three  months.  Down  a well, 
forty  feet  deep,  and  in  a pitch-black  chamber,  splash- 
ing about  in  bitter  water,  and  toiling  by  candle-light, 
all  the  work  had  to  be  done ; and  dragging  out  large 
blocks  of  masonry  in  a very  confined  space  in  such 
circumstances  is  slow  and  tedious.  While  thus  mining 
the  way  to  the  expected  burial,  we  lit  on  a hole  in  the 
masonry  filled  with  large  ushabtis  standing  in  rows, 
two  hundred  in  all,  of  the  finest  workmanship ; and, 
before  long,  on  the  other  side  of  the  sarcophagus,  two 
hundred  more  were  found  in  a similar  recess.  But 
the  sarcophagus  itself  was  most  difficult  to  open. 
The  lid  block  was  nearly  two  feet  thick,  and  almost 
under  water.  It  was  far  too  heavy  for  us  to  move 
entire,  so  some  weeks  were  spent  in  cutting  it  in  two. 
One  piece  was  then  raised,  but  it  proved  to  be  the 
foot  end  ; and  though  I spent  a day  struggling  with 
the  inner  coffins,  sitting  in  the  sarcophagus  up  to  my  • 
nose  in  water,  I yet  could  not  draw  them  out  from 
under  the  rest  of  the  stone  lid.  So  after  some  days 
the  men  raised  that,  enough  to  get  one’s  head  in 
between  the  under  side  of  it  and  the  water ; and  then 
I spent  another  gruesome  day,  sitting  astride  of  the 
inner  coffin,  unable  to  turn  my  head  under  the  lid 
without  tasting  the  bitter  brine  in  which  I sat.  But 
though  I got  out  the  first  coffin  lid,  the  inner  one 
was  firmly  fastened  down  to  its  coffin  ; and  though 
I tried  every  way  of  loosening  the  coffin,  it  was 
so  firmly  set  in  a bed  of  sand  that  crowbars 
and  mining  with  the  feet  were  useless,  and  it  was  so 


94 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


low  in  the  water  as  to  be  out  of  arms’  reach.  The 
need  of  doing  everything  by  feeling  and  the  impos- 
sibility of  seeing  what  was  done  under  the  black  water, 
made  it  a slow  business.  A third  day  I then  attacked 
it,  with  a helpful  friend.  Mr.  Fraser.  We  drilled  holes 
in  the  coffin,  as  it  was  uninscribed,  and  fixed  in  stout 
iron  bolts.  Then,  w'ith  ropes  tied  to  them,  all  our 
party  hauled  again  and  again  at  the  coffin  ; it  yielded  ; 
and  up  came  an  immense  black  mass  to  the  surface  of 
the  water.  With  great  difficulty  we  drew  it  out,  as  it 
was  very  heavy,  and  we  had  barely  room  for  it  beneath 
the  low  ceiling.  Anxiously  opening  it,  we  found  a 
slight  inner  coffin,  and  then  the  body  of  Horuta 
himself,  wrapped  in  a network  of  beads  of  lazuli,  beryl, 
and  silver,  the  last  all  decomposed.  Tenderly  we 
towed  him  out  to  the  bottom  of  the  entrance  pit, 
handling  him  with  the  same  loving  care  as  Izaak  his 
worms.  And  then  came  the  last,  and  longed-for  scene, 
for  which  our  months  of  toil  had  whetted  our  appetites, 
— the  unwrapping  of  Horuta.  Bit  by  bit  the  layers  of 
pitch  and  cloth  v'ere  loosened,  and  row  after  row  of 
magnificent  amulets  were  disclosed,  just  as  they  were 
laid  on  in  the  distant  past.  The  gold  ring  on  the 
finger  which  bore  his  name  and  titles,  the  exquisitely 
inlaid  gold  birds,  the  chased  gold  figures,  the  lazuli 
statuettes  delicately  wrought,  the  polished  lazuli  and 
beryl  and  carnelian  amulets  finely  engraved,  all  the 
wealth  of  talismanic  armoury,  rewarded  our  eyes  with 
a sight  which  has  never  been  surpassed  to  archaeolo- 
gical gaze.  No  such  complete  and  rich  a series  of 
amulets  has  been  seen  intact  before ; and  as  one  by 
one  they  were  removed  all  their  positions  were 


HAWARA 


95 


recorded,  and  they  may  now  be  seen  lying  in  their 
original  order  in  the  Ghizeh  Museum.  The  rest  of 
the  family  of  Horuta  lay  in  the  large  chamber,  some 
in  stone  sarcophagi,  some  only  in  wooden  coffins. 
They  also  had  their 
due  funereal  wealth; 
and  a dozen  other 
sets  of  amulets  re- 
warded our  search, 
some  of  them  as  fine 
a series  as  any  known 
before,  but  not  to 
compare  for  a mo- 
ment with  those  of 
the  walled-in  patri- 
arch. 

Of  rather  later  age, 
perhaps  Ptolemaic, 
was  a large  wooden 
coffin  that  we  found; 
the  body  and  the  lid 
were  two  equal  parts, 
plainly  rectangular ; 
and  they  lay  where 
some  old  spoiler  had 
left  them,  separated, 
andafterwardsburied 


72.  Vulture  and  Cow,  from 
Cofmn  Lid. 


under  a heap  of  stuff  thrown  out  in  digging  later 
tombs.  The  whole  surface  of  this  sarcophagus  was 
stuccoed,  inside  and  outside,  top  and  bottom,  and 
every  part  of  it  finely  painted  and  inscribed.  The 
top  of  the  lid  had  the  deities  of  the  district,  the 


96 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


hawk,  the  Osiris-crocodile,  and  the  bennu,  with 
inscriptions ; the  lower  part  inside  bore  other  animals., 
the  vulture,  the  cow,  and  white  hippopotamus;  the 
inside  of  the  lid  had  the  two  crocodile-headed 
Sebeks  and  the  ape ; and  underneath  the  lower  part, 
or  body,  was  a long  inscription,  partly  biographical. 
I had  a terrifying  experience  with  this  coffin  ; when 
I found  it  much  of  the  stucco  was  loose,  and  any 
amount  of  trouble  was  worth  while  to  preserve  so 
beautiful  and  important  an  object.  I observed  in 
copying  it  that  parts  had  been  waxed,  to  heighten  the 
colour,  and  this  suggested  to  me  to  fasten  down  the 
stucco  by  wax.  I tried  melting  it  on  with  a plate  of 
hot  iron,  but  could  scarcely  do  it  without  blackening 
it  with  smoke.  In  course  of  this  I poured  a layer  of 
wax  over  the  surface ; but  what  was  my  horror  to  see 
as  the  wax  cooled  that  it  contracted  into  saucer- 
formed  patches,  lifting  up  with  it  the  stucco,  and 
leaving  bare  wood  beneath  ! To  touch  these  wax 
patches  must  irrevocably  ruin  all  hopes  of  replacing 
the  stucco  ; so  I covered  it  with  sheets  of  paper,  and 
thought  on  it  for  some  days,  a spectre  of  dismal 
failure.  I tried  in  vain  to  buy  a brazier  at  Medinet ; 
so  at  last,  making  a grating  of  wire,  I filled  it  with 
red-hot  charcoal,  and  supported  it  over  part  of  the 
unlucky  coffin.  As  I watched  it,  the  wax  softened, 
flattened,  and  dropped  exactly  into  place  again ; 
patch  after  patch  settled  down,  the  wax  melted  and 
ran  in  under  the  stucco ; and  at  last  I saw  the  whole 
surface  completely  relaid,  and  fixed  so  firmly  that 
even  the  fearful  rattle  of  an  Egyptian  railway  wagon, 
in  the  long  journey  to  Bulak,  did  not  injure  it. 


HAWARA 


97 


But  perhaps  the  greatest  success  at  Havvara  was  in 
the  direction  least  expected.  So  soon  as  I went  there 
I observed  a cemetery  on  the  north  of  the  pyramid  ; 
on  digging  in  it  I soon  saw  that  it  was  all  Roman, 
the  remains  of  brick  tomb-chambers ; and  I was  going 
to  give  it  up  as  not  worth  working,  when  one  day 
a mummy  was  found,  with  a painted  portrait  on  a 
wooden  panel  placed  over  its  face.  This  was  a 
beautifully  drawn  head  of  a girl,  in  soft  grey  tints, 
entirely  classical  in  its  style  and  mode,  without  any 
Egyptian  influence.  More  men  were  put  on  to  this 
region,  and  in  two  days  another  portrait-mummy 
was  found  ; in  two  days  more  a third,  and  then  for 
nine  days  not  one ; an  anxious  waiting,  suddenly 
rewarded  by  finding  three.  Generally  three  or  four 
wrere  found  every  week,  and  I have  even  rejoiced 
over  five  in  one  day.  Altogether  sixty  were  found 
in  clearing  this  cemetery,  some  much  decayed  and 
worthless,  others  as  fresh  as  the  day  they  were 
painted. 

Not  only  were  these  portraits  found  thus  on  the 
mummies,  but  also  the  various  stages  of  decoration 
that  led  up  to  the  portrait.  First,  the  old-fashioned 
stucco  cartonnage  coverings,  purely  Egyptian,  of  the 
Ptolemies.  Next,  the  same  made  more  solidly,  and 
with  distinct  individual  differences,  in  fact,  modelled 
masks  of  the  deceased  persons.  Then  arms  modelled 
in  one  with  the  bust,  the  rest  of  the  body  being  covered 
with  a canvas  wrapper  painted  with  mythologic  scenes, 
all  purely  Egyptian.  Probably  under  Hadrian  the 
first  portraits  are  found,  painted  on  a canvas  wrapper, 
but  of  Greek  work.  Soon  the  canvas  was  abandoned, 

H 


Abovut  H.O-1AO  A D- 


fi  bou-C  is_0  toZSO  fl.p 


73.  Four  Stages  of  Mummy  Decoration. 


HAWARA 


99 


and  a wooden  panel  used  instead  ; and  then  the 
regular  series  of  panel  portraits  extends  until  the 
decline  in  the  third  century.  All  this  custom  of 
decorating  the  mummies  arose  from  their  being  kept 
above  ground  for  many  years  in  rooms,  probably  con- 
nected with  the  house.  Various  signs  of  this  usage  can 
be  seen  on  the  mummies,  and  in  the  careless  way  in 
which  they  were  at  last  buried,  after  such  elaborate 
decoration. 

Though  only  a sort  of  undertaker’s  business,  in  a 
provincial  town  of  Egypt,  and  belonging  to  the  Roman 
age,  when  art  had  greatly  declined,  yet  these  paintings 
give  us  a better  idea  of  what  ancient  painting  was,  and 
what  a high  state  it  must  have  reached  in  its  prime, 
than  anything  yet  known,  excepting  some  of  the 
Pompeian  frescoes.  Mannerism  is  evident  in  nearly 
all  of  these,  and  faults  may  be  easily  detected  ; yet 
there  is  a spirit,  a sentiment,  an  expression  about  the 
better  examples  which  can  only  be  the  relic  of  a 
magnificent  school,  whose  traditions  and  skill  were  not 
then  quite  lost.  A few  indeed  of  these  heads  are  of 
such  power  and  subtlety  that  they  may  stand  beside 
the  works  of  any  age  without  being  degraded.  If  such 
was  Greek  painting  still,  centuries  after  its  zenith,  by 
obscure  commercial  artists,  and  in  a distant  town  of  a 
foreign  land,  we  may  dimly  credit  what  it  may  have 
been  in  its  grandeur.  The  National  Gallery  now 
begins  its  history  of  paintings  far  before  that  of  any 
other  collection  ; the  finest  examples  left,  after  the 
selection  of  the  Bulak  Museum,  being  now  at  Tra- 
falgar Square. 

The  technical  methods  of  these  paintings  have  been 
H 2 


100 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


much  discussed.  Certainly  the  colours  were  mixed 
with  melted  wax  as  a medium,  and  it  seems  most 
likely  that  both  the  brush  and  hard  point  were  used. 
The  backing  is  a very  thin  cedar  panel,  on  which  a 
coat  of  lead  colour  priming  was  laid,  followed  by  a 
flesh-coloured  ground  where  the  face  was  to  come. 
The  drapery  is  freely  marked  in  with  bold  brushfuls 
of  colour,  while  the  flesh  is  carefully  and  smoothly 
laid  on  with  zigzag  strokes.  In  some  portraits  the 
boldness  of  the  work  is  almost  like  some  modern 
romanticist’s  ; at  a foot  distance  the  surface  is  nearly 
incomprehensible,  at  six  or  eight  feet  it  produces  a 
perfect  effect. 

Several  of  these  pictures  when  found  were  in  a 
perilous  state ; the  film  of  wax  paint  was  scaled  loose 
from  the  panel,  and  they  could  never  be  even  tilted 
up  on  edge  without  perishing.  After  finding  several 
in  this  tender  state,  and  pondering  on  their  preserva- 
tion, I ventured  to  try  the  same  process  as  for  the 
stucco  coffin.  The  wire-grating  was  filled  with  red- 
hot  charcoal,  and  then  the  frail  portrait  was  slid  in 
beneath  it,  a few  drops  of  melted  wax  laid  on  it.  and 
watched.  In  a few  seconds  the  fresh  wax  began  to 
spread,  and  then  at  once  I ladled  melted  wax  all  over 
the  surface ; a second  too  long,  and  it  began  to  fry 
and  to  blister;  too  sharp  a tilt  to  drain  it  when  it 
came  out,  and  the  new  wax  washed  away  the  paint. 
But  with  care  and  management  it  was  possible  to 
preserve  even  the  most  rotten  paintings  with  fresh 
wax ; and  afterwards  I extended  this  waxing  to  all 
substances  that  were  perishable,  woodwork  and  lea- 
ther, as  well  as  stucco  and  paint. 


HAWARA 


IOI 


This  custom,  however,  of  preserving  the  mummies 
above  ground,  adorned  with  the  portraits,  gave  way 
about  the  time  of  Constantine,  or  perhaps  a little 
earlier,  and  immediate  burial  was  adopted.  Probably 
this  was  partly  due  to  the  pro- 
gress of  Christianity. 

Instead,  therefore,  of  finding 
the  portraits  of  the  persons, 
we  have  their  embroidered  and 
richly  woven  garments ; for 
they  were  buried  in  the  finest 
clothes  they  had  when  alive. 

And  their  possessions  were 
buried  with  them.  In  one 
grave  was  a lady’s  casket 
made  of  wood  inlaid  with  ivory 
panels,  on  which  figures  were 
carved  and  coloured  with  in- 
laying. The  fine  cut-glass  vase 
from  another  grave  is  of  the 
whitest  glass,  and  excellently 
cut  with  the  wheel  ; perhaps 
the  finest  example  of  such  work 
from  Roman  times.  The  toys 
were  also  buried  with  the  chil- 
dren, and  dolls,  with  all  their 
furniture,  — bedstead,  mirror, 
table,  toilet-box,  clothes-basket, 
and  other  paraphernalia — were 
placed  with  the  little  ones  who  had  died.  Even  more 
elaborate  toys  were  laid  here,  such  as  the  curious 
terra  cotta  of  a sedan  chair,  borne  by  two  porters, 


102 


TEN  YEARS  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


with  a lady  seated  inside  ; a loose  figure  that  can  be 
removed. 


75.  Side  of  Ivory  Casket.  1:4. 


76.  Sedan  Chair,  Terra  Cotta,  i : 4. 

In  one  instance  a far  more  valuable  prize  accom- 
panied a body  ; under  the  head  of  a lady  lay  a papy- 


HAWARA 


i°3 

rus  roll,  which  still  preserved  a large  part  of  the  second 
book  of  the  Iliad,  beautifully  written,  and  with  mar- 
ginal notes.  A great  quantity  of  pieces  of  papyrus, 
letters  and  accounts,  of  Roman  age,  were  also  found 
scattered  about  in  the  cemetery.  In  a large  jar  buried 
in  the  ground  lay  a bundle  of  title-deeds : they 
recorded  the  sale  of  some  monastic  property,  and 
were  most  carefully  rolled,  bound  up  with  splints  of 
reed,  to  prevent  their  being  bent,  and  wrapped  in 
several  old  cloths. 


i : 6.  77.  Roman  Rag  Dolls.  i : 4. 


In  yet  another  respect  Hawara  proved  a rich  field. 
In  the  coffins,  in  the  graves,  and  in  the  ruins  of  the 
chambers,  were  still  preserved  the  wreaths  with  which 
the  dead  had  been  adorned,  and  the  flowers  which  the 
living  had  brought  to  the  tombs.  These  wreaths  were 
often  in  the  most  perfect  condition,  every  detail  of  the 


104  TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

flowers  being  as  complete  as  if  dried  for  a herbarium. 
They  illustrate  the  accounts  of  Pliny  and  other  writers 
about  ancient  wreaths,  and  the  plants  used  for  them, 
and  show  what  a careful  and  precise  trade  the  wreath- 
maker's  was.  Beside  the  decorative  plants  there 
were  many  seeds,  and  remains  of  edible  fruits  and 
vegetables,  which  had  been  left  behind  in  the  surface 
chambers  of  the  tombs  after  the  funereal  feasts.  Alto- 
gether, the  cemetery  of  Hawara  has  doubled  the 
extent  of  our  list  of  ancient  Egyptian  botany,  under 
the  careful  examination  given  by  Mr.  Newberry  to  the 
boxes  full  of  plants  which  I brought  away. 

Few  places,  then,  have  such  varied  interest  as 
Hawara  ; the  twelfth  dynasty  pyramid,  the  labyrinth, 
the  amulets  of  Horuta,  the  portraits,  the  botany,  and 
the  papyri,  are  each  of  special  interest  and  historical 
value. 

In  this  year  also  I visited  the  other  side  of  the  lake 
of  the  Fayum,  now  known  as  the  Birket  Rerun. 
There,  at  some  miles  back  in  that  utter  solitude,  stands 
a building  of  unknown  age  and  unknown  purport. 
It  is  massively  constructed,  but  without  any  trace  of 
inscription,  or  even  ornament,  which  would  tell  its 
history.  That  it  cannot  be  as  late  as  the  Kasr  Rerun, 
is  probable  from  its  being  at  a much  higher  level. 
There  would  be  no  object  in  making  a building  at 
some  miles  distant  in  the  desert,  as  it  now  is  ; and  we 
must  rather  suppose  it  to  belong  to  the  age  when  the 
lake  was  full,  and  extended  out  so  far.  But  where 
it  comes  before  the  Ptolemaic  age  we  cannot  say 
The  front  doorway  leads  into  a long  court,  which  has 
a chamber  at  each  end,  and  seven  recesses  in  the  long 


HAWARA 


105 


78.  Building  North  of  Birket  Rerun. 


79.  Interior  of  Building. 

side  opposite  the  entrance.  These  recesses  have  had 
doors,  of  which  the  pivot  holes  can  be  seen.  There 


io  6 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


are  no  traces  of  statues  or  of  sarcophagi  about ; and 
the  place  has  been  keenly  tunnelled  and  explored  by 
treasure-seekers. 


So.  Toy  Bird  on  Wheels,  IIawara. 


8 1.  Pyramid  of  Illahun. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ILLAHUN. 

1889-90. 

Having  finished  opening  the  pyramid  of  Hawara, 
the  next  attraction  was  that  of  Illahun,  a few  miles  to 
the  east  of  it,  in  the  Nile  valley,  at  the  entrance  to  the 
Fayum.  This  pyramid  differs  from  all  others  in  that 
the  lower  part  is  a natural  rock  cut  into  shape  ; upon 
that  a mass  of  mud-brick  rises,  like  that  of  Hawara, 
and  around  the  base  lie  the  fragments  of  the  fine 
limestone  casing  which  originally  covered  it.  As 
almost  all  the  pyramids  had  their  chambers  built 
in  a sort  of  well  in  the  rock  base,  I tried  this  pyramid 
on  such  an  hypothesis,  and  therefore  cleared  the  edge 
of  its  rocky  portion  all  round  as  far  as  possible,  to 
search  for  the  cut  into  it,  expected  to  lead  to  the 
excavation  for  the  chamber.  At  the  south-east  corner 
this  was  difficult,  as  the  rock  was  there  deficient,  and 


108  TEN  YEARS'  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

the  core  had  been  made  up  by  layers  of  chips.  Still, 
for  months  we  went  on  clearing  the  sides  and  search- 
ing. Much  other  work  was  going  on  meanwhile,  and 
by  different  sources  I had  found  that  the  pyramid 
belonged  to  Usertesen  II,  as  we  shall  notice  pre- 
sently. Amongst  other  work,  I searched  along  a 
ledge  in  the  rock  at  the  base,  where  the  pavement 
had  originally  been  placed.  While  doing  this  we 
found  a well,  which  I did  not  clear,  as  I was  near  the 
end  of  my  season  for  work  ; but,  on  Mr.  Fraser  coming 
to  secure  the  place  during  my  absence,  I commended 
this  well  to  his  notice  as  a possible  entrance.  He 
cleared  it  out,  and  at  forty  feet  deep  found  a passage 
leading  up  into  the  pyramid.  Then  it  was  evident 
that  no  other  external  sign  on  the  pyramid  itself  was 
possible,  for  the  passages  and  chambers  were  wholly 
cut  in  the  rock,  and  the  pyramid  merely  stood  on  the 
surface,  without  any  connection  with  the  sepulchre 
beneath  it. 

There  were  two  well-entrances  to  the  pyramid,  close 
together.  One  beyond  the  pavement  was  so  carefully 
covered  with  rubbish  that  I could  not  have  found  it  un- 
less I had  made  a great  clearance  ; by  this  the  sarcopha- 
gus and  large  blocks  of  masonry  were  taken  in.  The 
smaller  well  was  evidently  for  the  workmen  to  gain 
access  to  the  lower  side  of  the  blocks  that  were  in 
course  of  being  taken  in  : it  was  hidden  by  the  pave- 
ment, was  found  anciently,  and  served  for  spoilers  to 
enter  by,  and  lastly  was  found  again  in  my  digging. 
Had  it  not  been  for  this  smaller  well,  I believe  the 
pyramid  would  have  been  still  inviolate. 

The  passage  in  the  inside  is  rough  hewn  in  the  soft 


ILLAHUN 


109 


rock,  and  was  smeared  over  with  a coat  of  thin  plaster 
originally,  but  without  a trace  of  ornament  or  inscrip- 
tion. It  is  wide,  and  high  enough  to  walk  upright 
freely.  At  the  end  it  opened  into  a chamber  lined 
with  blocks  of  limestone,  of  which  a large  part  has 
been  removed,  probably  by  the  Ramesside  masons, 
when  they  plundered  the  pyramid  and  its  temples  for 
stone.  At  the  west  end  of  this  chamber,  which  runs 
east  and  west,  is  the  door  to  a red  granite  chamber, 
containing  the  sarcophagus.  This  second  chamber  is 
roofed  exactly  like  that  of  Menkaura’s  pyramid  at 
Gizeh,  with  slanting  blocks  cut  out  in  a curve  below. 
The  sarcophagus  is  one  of  the  finest  products  of 
mechanical  skill  that  is  known  from  ancient  times. 
It  is  of  red  granite,  of  a form  not  before  met  with, 
having  a wide  rectangular  brim.  The  surfaces  are  all 
ground  flat,  but  not  polished  ; truth,  and  not  effect, 
was  sought  for.  And  its  errors  of  work  in  flatness  and 
regularity  are  not  more  than  the  thickness  of  a visiting 
card.  Its  accuracy  of  proportion  is  also  fine,  as  each 
dimension  is  a whole  number  of  palms,  with  a fluctua- 
tion of  only  one  part  in  a thousand.  In  front  of  the 
sarcophagus  stood  the  alabaster  table  of  offerings,  for 
the  ka  of  Usertesen  II,  now  in  the  Gizeh  Museum. 
Strange  to  say,  there  is  not  a trace  of  a coffin,  or  a 
lid  to  the  sarcophagus  ; and,  indeed,  as  this  chamber 
is  not  under  the  middle  of  the  pyramid,  it  may  be 
questioned  whether  the  real  interment  is  not  yet  to 
be  reached  by  some  other  passage. 

From  the  north  wall  of  this  chamber  a strange 
passage  is  cut  in  the  rock,  first  northwards,  then  west, 
then  south,  then  east,  and  lastly  northwards  again, 


IIO 


TEN  YEARS  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


opening  into  the  limestone  chamber ; in  fact,  it  passes 
around  the  granite  chamber.  It  was  not  a workman’s 
passage  intended  to  be  closed  up  again,  as  the  doorway 
of  it  has  a bevelled  edge  and  is  curved  at  the  top.  It 
rather  looks  as  if  intended  to  prove  to  any  spoilers 
that  there  was  no  other  concealed  passage  leading  out 
from  the  granite  chamber,  and  thus  to  check  their 
destructive  searchings.  If  so,  we  may  be  tolerably 
certain  that  there  is  some  other  chamber  containing 
the  real  interment. 

The  chambers  in  the  pyramid  are  to  the  east  of  the 
centre:  and  adjoining  the  east  face  of  the  pyramid 
externally  there  stood  a shrine,  on  the  walls  of  which 
were  figured  the  tables  and  lists  of  offerings  for  the 
ka  of  Usertesen  II.  The  sculptures  were  of  beautiful 
work,  and  brilliantly  coloured.  What  process  was 
used  for  fixing  these  coats  of  colour  we  do  not  know  ; 
but  still,  from  over  four  thousand  years,  after  being 
broken  and  thrown  into  heaps,  these  colours  are  firmly 
fixed  on  the  stone,  and  soaking  and  washing  make  no 
change  in  them.  Only  one  large  piece  was  found, 
now  in  the  Gizeh  Museum,  but  hundreds  of  portions 
of  hieroglyphs  were  recovered  among  the  chips.  Who 
the  destroyers  were  we  can  guess  by  an  inscription  of 
Ramessu  II,  rudely  painted  on  a block  of  the  stone. 
Among  the  ruins  some  chips  of  a black-granite  seated 
statue  of  Usertesen  II,  were  found,  showing  that  the 
shrine  was  furnished  like  the  earlier  temples  of  the 
fourth  dynasty. 

The  regular  temple  of  the  pyramid  stood  about 
half  a mile  to  the  east  of  it,  on  the  edge  of  the  desert ; 
and  it  has  been  destroyed  like  the  shrine,  and  by  the 


ILLAHUN 


III 


same  hands,  as  two  cartouches  of  Ramessu  II  were 
found  on  the  blocks ; several  beads,  &c.,  of  the 
nineteenth  dynasty  occur  in  the  ruins ; and  I found 
the  name  of  Usertesen  II  on  a piece  of  a granite 
pillar  of  Ramessu  II  at  Ahnas,  some  miles  to  the 
south,  showing  for  what  purpose  Illahun  had  been 
plundered.  The  outline  of  the  temple  can  be  traced 
by  the  thick  brick  wall  which  surrounded  it.  The 
plan  is  square,  and  it  seems  to  have  consisted  of  brick- 
work externally,  lined  with  limestone  masonry.  But 
of  the  internal  arrangement  not  a trace  can  be 
recovered.  Probably  a shrine  of  granite  stood  at  the 
west  end  of  the  court,  and  objects  of  sandstone  in  the 
area,  judging  by  the  position  of  the  chips.  Also  a 
large  basalt  statue  existed  here,  of  which  only  one 
fragment  was  found ; the  statue  must  therefore  have 
been  removed  (probably  to  Ahnas),  and  not  broken  up 
here.  One  interesting  discovery  was  made,  however. 
In  the  middle  of  the  area  I noticed  a slight  hollow  in 
the  rock  surface,  about  two  and  a half  feet  square.  I 
thought  of  a foundation  deposit,  and  examined  this 
place.  A block  of  stone  lay  fitted  into  it ; on 
breaking  and  raising  this,  a second  block  was  seen  ; 
when  that  was  removed,  we  found  plain  sand.  Scrap- 
ing this  out,  we  came  on  much  broken  pottery,  and 
then  some  bronze  models  of  tools,  and  a large 
number  of  carnelian  beads.  There  were  four  sets 
of  objects,  thrown  in  pell  mell  ; but  the  strings  of 
carnelian  beads,  all  exactly  alike,  are  a puzzle.  Is  it 
possible  that  they  were  bead-money?  They  have 
the  requisites  of  an  exchange  standard,  as  well  as 
gold  ; they  need  a regular  amount  of  labour  to  pro- 


1 1 2 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


duce  them,  they  are  unalterable,  and  they  serve  for 
ornament  when  not  used  for  exchange.  However  that 
may  be,  we  have  here  far  the  oldest  foundation- 
deposit  known. 


The  great  prize  of  Illahun  was  unknown  and 
unsuspected  by  anyone.  On  the  desert  adjoining  the 
north  side  of  the  temple,  I saw  evident  traces  of  a 
town,  brick  walls,  houses  and  pottery ; moreover,  the 
pottery  was  of  a style  as  yet  unknown  to  me.  The 
town-wall  started  out  in  a line  with  the  face  of  the 
temple  ; and  it  dawned  on  me  that  this  could  hardly 
be  other  than  the  town  of  the  pyramid  builders, 
originally  called  Ha-Usertesen-hotep,  and  now  known 
as  Kahun.  A little  digging  soon  put  it  beyond  doubt, 
as  we  found  cylinders  of  that  age,  and  no  other ; so 
that  it  was  evident  that  I actually  had  in  hand  an 
unaltered  town  of  the  twelfth  dynasty,  regularly  laid 
out  by  the  royal  architect  for  the  workmen  and  stores, 


ILLAHUN 


JI3 

required  in  building  the  pyramid  and  its  temple. 
After  a few  holes  had  been  made,  I formed  up  the 
workmen  in  a line  along  the  outermost  street,  and 
regularly  cleared  the  first  line  of  chambers,  turning 
the  stuff  into  the  street ; then  the  chambers  beyond 
those  were  emptied  into  them  ; and  so  line  after  line, 
block  after  block,  almost  every  room  in  the  town  was 


83.  North  side  of  Kahun,  showing  Line  of  Town  Wall. 


emptied  out  and  searched.  The  only  part  not  quite 
cleared  was  where  habitations  had  been  formed  in 
Roman  times  by  lime-burners,  who  had  disturbed  the 
place  and  destroyed  the  ancient  walls.  Every  chamber 
as  it  was  cleared  was  measured  and  planned,  and  we 
can  see  the  exact  scheme  of  the  architect,  and  where 
he  expanded  the  town  as  time  went  on. 

The  general  outline  was  a square  mass  ; walled  on 

I 


1 14  TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

the  west,  north,  and  cast  sides,  but  open  on  the  south 
to  the  Nile  plain,  and  not  fully  built  out  in  this 
direction.  In  this  space  were  buildings  adjoining  the 
wall  all  round  ; within  them  a main  street  around 
three  sides  of  a square  block  of  buildings  in  the 
middle ; and  minor  streets  subdividing  the  buildings. 
Then  outside  the  wall  on  the  west  the  town  was 


84.  Steps  to  Upper  Buildings  on  Hill. 

enlarged  by  a further  space,  also  walled,  and  divided 
by  a long  main  street,  and  cross  streets  all  the  way 
along  it.  The  larger  houses  all  have  a court,  or 
atrium,  with  columns  around  the  middle  of  it,  and  in 
the  centre  a small  stone  tank  let  into  the  ground 
with  a square  of  limestone  around  it  five  feet  each 
way.  These  columns  were  sometimes  of  stone,  some- 
times of  wood  ; with  a simple  abacus,  or  with  a carved 
palm  capital ; octagonal,  or  fluted,  or  ribbed : but 


ILLAHUN 


ll5 

they  always  had  large  circular  stone  bases,  which 
mostly  remain  in  place  in  the  rooms.  The  roofing 
was  usually  of  beams,  overlaid  with  bundles  of 
straw,  and  mud-plastered ; but  many  arched  roofs  of 
brickwork  remain,  some  entire,  others  with  only  the 
lower  part.  The  doorways  were  always  arched  in 
brickwork,  and  we  know  now  for  certain  that  the  arch 


was  not  only  known,  but  was  in  constant  use  by  the 
early  Egyptians. 

In  the  rooms  pottery  was  often  found  ; and  many  parts 
of  the  town  having  been  deserted  when  the  building  of 
the  pyramid  was  finished,  the  empty  rooms  were  used 
as  rubbish  holes  by  the  inhabitants  who  remained  ; in 
such  places  there  might  be  even  six  or  eight  feet  depth 
of  broken  pottery,  woodwork  and  other  things.  Tools 


II 6 TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

were  also  found  hidden  in  the  dust  which  had  lain  in 
the  chambers ; and  one  basket  was  found  with  a lid, 
marvellously  fresh  and  firm,  containing  copper  hatchets 
and  chisels,  and  a copper  bowl,  all  as  free  from  rust  as 
when  they  were  buried.  Beneath  the  brick  floors  of 
the  rooms  was,  however,  the  best  place  to  search  ; not 
only  for  hidden  things,  such  as  a statuette  of  a dancer 


86.  Castanets  and  Figure  of  Dancer. 


and  pair  of  ivory  castanets,  but  also  for  numerous 
burials  of  babies  in  wooden  boxes.  These  boxes  had 
been  made  for  clothes  and  household  use,  but  were 
used  to  bury  infants,  often  accompanied  by  necklaces 
and  other  things.  On  the  necklaces  were  sometimes 
cylinders  with  the  kings’  names  ; and  thus  we  know  for 


ILLAHUN 


117 

certain  that  these  burials,  and  the  inhabitation  of  the 
town,  is  of  the  twelfth  dynasty,  from  Usertesen  II 
onward.  Lying  on  one  box  was  a splendid  ivory  carving 
of  a baboon  seated,  of  the  most  naturalistic  work, 
comparable  with  the  best  cinquecento  Italian  ivories. 
This  of  course  is  kept  at  the 
Gizeh  Museum.  In  the  houses 
but  little  sculpture  was  found  ; far 
the  finest  piece  being  a basalt 
statute  of  an  official,  now  also  at 
the  Gizeh  Museum. 

The  domestic  remains  were  of 
great  interest ; beside  the  pottery 
there  were  balls  of  thread,  linen 
cloth,  knives  and  tools  of  copper 
and  of  flint,  a mirror  of  copper 
(Group  92),  fishing  nets,  and  many 
wooden  tools,  hoes,  rakes,  a brick- 
mould,  plasterers’  floats,  mallets, 
copper  chisels  set  in  wooden 
handles,  &c.  Also  games  (Group 
93)  as  whip-tops,  tip-cats,  draught- 
boards, dolls,  and  a beautifully 
woven  sling.  Many  pieces  of  furni- 
ture were  found,  among  them  the 
greater  part  of  a finely-made  slen- 
der chair  of  dark  wood  inlaid  with 

, , , 87.  Ivory  Baboon. 

ivory  pegs.  Blue-glazed  pottery 

was  not  unusual,  several  figures  of  animals  and  pieces 
of  bowls  being  found.  Hitherto  we  had  never  known 
how  the  Egyptians  obtained  fire,  as  there  is  no  sign 
of  this  on  the  sculptures,  nor  do  they  seem  to  have 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


Il8 


attached  any  significance  to  fire-making.  In  this  town 
I found  several  sticks  with  the  burnt  holes  made  by 


drilling  fire,  as  many  races  do  at  present : the 
Egyptians  probably  did  this  with  the  bow-drill,  with 


89.  Plasterers’  Floats,  and  Brick-mould. 

which  they  were  so  familiar,  and  of  which  specimens 
were  found  here. 


ijo.  Agricultural  Tools  of  Wood,  i : 20. 


£^§5351 


91.  Fire  Apparatus,  i : 10. 


120 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


Not  only  do  we  in  this  town  drop  into  the  midst  of 
the  daily  life  and  productions  of  this  early  age,  but 
the  documents  of  the  time  also  remain.  In  various 
chambers  papyri  were  found  ; some  carefully  sealed 
up  and  put  by,  such  as  the  wills  of  Uah,  and  Antef- 


92.  Set  of  Tools,  Vases,  and  Mirror,  i :8. 


meri,  but  mostly  thrown  aside  as  waste  paper.  One 
of  the  largest  is  a hymn  of  praise  to  Usertesen  III  ; 
some  pages  of  a medical  work,  some  of  a veterinary 
papyrus,  and  innumerable  parts  of  letters,  accounts, 
and  memoranda  make  up  the  collection.  As  only 
five  papyri  of  this  early  date  were  known  before  now, 
this  is  a wide  addition  to  our  resources. 


ILLA.HUN 


1 21 


Another  subject  has  quite  unexpectedly  come  to 
light.  Marks  of  various  kinds  are  found  on  pieces  of 
pottery-vessels  here,  some  put  on  by  the  maker  before 
the  baking,  but  mostly  scratched  by  the  owner.  These 
marks  are  many  of  them  derived  from  the  Egyptian 
workmen’s  signs,  corruptions  of  hieroglyphics.  But, 
as  we  shall  see  in  the  next  chapter,  the  discoveries  at 
Gurob  point  to  these  having  some  kinship  with  the 
Western  alphabets.  They  are  therefore  the  venerable 


first  step  in  adopting  marks  to  represent  sounds,  irre- 
spective of  their  primitive  form  and  significance. 

That  these  marks  were  known  not  only  to 
Egyptians,  but  to  foreigners  here  as  well,  is  probable 
from  the  discoveries  of  Aegean  pottery  in  this  place. 
Intermixed  with,  and  even  beneath,  the  rubbish 
mounds  of  the  twelfth  dynasty  are  pieces  of  pottery 
which  appear  to  be  the  forerunners  of  what  we  know 
as  Greek  pottery  in  later  ages.  The  ware,  the  motives  of 
the  decoration, belong  to  the  Aegean, and  not  to  Egypt; 
either  Greece  or  Asia  Minor  was  their  home,  but  long 


122 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


centuries  before  any  specimens  that  we  yet  know  of 
from  those  countries.  The  weights  found  here  alsc 
testify  to  foreign  influences,  the  greater  part  of  them 
being  on  the  Phoenician,  Aeginetan,  and  Hittite 
standards. 

Some  later  times  have  left  their  traces  in  this  place, 
although  the  bulk  of  it  is  purely  of  the  twelfth 
dynasty.  A wooden  stamp  of  Apepi  was  found, 
probably  of  the  Hyksos  king;  and  if  so,  the  only 
small  article  yet  known  of  that  dynasty.  A small 
papyrus  of  Amenhotep  III  was  found,  rolled  up,  and 
placed  in  a pottery  cylinder  : also  a splendid  ‘ hunting 
scarab’  of  that  king,  recording  his  slaying  102  lions, 
which  is  of  brilliant  and  perfect  blue-green  glaze.  A 
broken  papyrus  of  Amenhotep  IV  was  also  left  here. 
But  the  main  prize  was  a family  tomb,  probably  of 
the  end  of  the  nineteenth,  or  early  twentieth,  dynasty. 
A cellar  cut  in  the  rock,  belonging  to  one  of  the 
houses  of  the  twelfth  dynasty,  had  been  found  at  this 
later  date,  and  used  as  a sepulchre.  More  than  a 
dozen  coffins  were  piled  in  it,  each  containing  several 
bodies,  all  the  wrappings  of  which  were  reduced  to  black 
sooty  dust.  I stripped  for  the  work,  and  for  hours 
was  occupied  in  opening  coffin  after  coffin,  carefully 
searching  the  dust  inside  each,  cataloguing  everything 
as  I found  it,  overhauling  the  pottery  and  stone  vases 
heaped  in  the  chambers,  and  handing  everything  out 
to  the  one  native  lad  whom  I took  down  to  help  me. 
At  last  I finished  the  place,  and  came  out  much  like  a 
coal-heaver  or  a sweep,  so  that  I had  to  go  to  the 
nearest  pond  to  wash  all  over.  Though  none  of  the 
interments  were  rich,  yet  there  were  interesting 


ILLAHUN 


123 


objects,  and  some  foreign  ; and  above  all  we  had  the 
whole  find  completely  recorded,  and  the  positions  of 
things  noted  exactly  as  they  had  been  left  by  the 
interrers.  A curious  point  is  that  though  the  pottery, 
and  the  decoration  of  one  of  the  coffins,  precludes  our 
dating  this  earlier  than  the  end  of  the  nineteenth 


94.  Objects  from  Maket  Tomb,  i : 10. 


dynasty,  yet  all  the  scarabs  on  the  bodies  are  of  the 
early  part  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  down  to 
Tahutmes  III  ; excepting  a few  of  the  twelfth  dynasty, 
doubtless  found,  as  we  found  so  many,  in  this  town. 
That  all  the  decorations  should  be  heirlooms  is  a 
strange  fact.  In  the  richest  coffin,  the  only  one  con- 


124 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


taining  a name,  that  of  the  lady  Maket,  were  two 
musical  reeds,  carefully  slipped  inside  a larger  reed 
for  protection  ; the  scale  shown  by  their  holes  is  the 
major  scale.  The  pottery  here  was  remarkable;  not 
only  are  there  none  of  the  styles  characteristic  of  the 
eighteenth  and  nineteenth  dynasties,  so  well  known 
at  Tel  Amarna  and  Gurob,  but  the  greater  part  is 
Phoenician,  and  not  Egyptian,  in  its  paste  and  its 
forms ; while  among  it  is  an  Aegean  vase,  with  an  ivy 
leaf  and  stalk  on  each  side,  the  earliest  style  of  natural 
decoration  after  the  period  of  geometrical.  Some 
vases  of  green  paste  here  are  curious,  one  in  the  form 
of  a horn  stopped  at  the  wide  end. 

Of  later  date  still  was  a large  wooden  door,  which 
had  been  probably  brought  from  some  other  place 
in  Roman  times,  and  used  here  for  a house.  It  had 
been  made  by  Usarkon  I ; and  when  the  bronze  head 
and  foot-bands  were  incised  with  his  name,  the  wood 
beneath  had  received  the  impression,  which  it  retained 
after  all  the  bronze  had  been  removed.  On  the 
middle  of  the  door  there  had  been  a scene  of  Usarkon 
offering  to  Neit  and  Horus.  but  this  had  been  almost 
all  chiselled  away  anciently.  This  door  is  now  in  the 
Gizeh  Museum. 

The  next  period  of  importance  at  Illahun  is  from 
the  twenty-second  to  the  twenty-fifth  dynasties.  The 
hills  near  the  pyramid  had  been  much  used  for  rock 
tombs  and  mastabas  of  the  pyramid  period  ; but  these 
had  been  plundered  and  destroyed  in  early  times, 
and  the  excavations  were  re-used  during  the  later 
Bubastite  and  Ethiopian  dynasties.  These  interments 
are  generally  rude,  the  coffins  seldom  having  any 


ILLAHUN 


125 


intelligible  inscription  ; but  mostly  sham  copies  of 
the  usual  formula,  put  on  by  a decorator  who  could 
not  read.  The  only  fine  tomb  I found  here  was  that 
of  a priestess,  Amenardus ; her  sarcophagus  has 
carved  inscriptions  along  the  edges  and  down  the 
corner-posts,  and  the  coffin  and  that  of  her  father 
are  finely  painted  : these  are  now  at  Gizeh.  Many 
of  the  mummies  have  bead  net-works  and  patterns 
upon  them,  with  figures  of  winged  scarabs,  the  four 
genii,  the  ba  bird,  and  other  emblems,  all  executed 
in  coloured  beads.  As  the  threading  is  completely 
rotted,  the  beads  all  fall  apart  with  the  slightest 
shake,  and  such  work  is  therefore  never  preserved 
when  excavations  are  left  to  the  native  overseers. 
When  we  entered  a tomb,  I opened  the  coffins  in 
the  gentlest  way,  drawing  or  cutting  out  the  pegs 
which  fastened  them  ; and  then  a glance  inside  showed 
if  any  bead-work  existed.  If  there  were  bead  patterns, 
the  next  step  was  to  fetch  a petroleum  stove  down 
into  the  chamber,  melt  a batch  of  beeswax,  and  then 
when  it  was  on  the  point  of  chilling,  ladle  it  out,  and 
dash  it  over  the  bead-work.  If  the  wax  is  too  hot 
it  sinks  in,  and  soaks  all  the  mummy  wrappings  into 
a solid  mass ; if  poured  on,  it  runs  off  the  body  in 
a narrow  stream.  When  all  the  beads  were  covered, 
and  the  wax  set,  I then  lifted  up  the  sheet  of 
wax  with  the  bead- work  sticking  to  it,  flattened 
it  out  on  a board,  and  it  was  ready  for  fixing 
in  a tray  permanently,  with  the  lower  side  turned 
outward. 

The  amulets  found  in  these  tombs  are  all  of  the 
figures  of  deities,  specially  Bast,  and  are  of  pottery 


126 


TEN  YEARS  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


covered  with  light  olivey-green  glazes,  quite  different 
from  those  of  the  nineteenth  or  twentieth  dynasties. 
A revival  of  glazed  work  took  place  under  the  twenty- 
second  dynasty,  of  very  delicate  character,  and  fine 
glazing.  But  the  amulet  system  went  into  a very 
different  stage  in  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty ; then  in 
place  of  two  or  three,  generally  varying  in  size,  we 
find  dozens  all  uniform  in  style,  either  of  pottery  or 
of  polished  stone,  arranged  in  rows  on  the  mummy 
according  to  a system.  Such  was  the  plan  of  the 
amulets  at  Hawara  and  at  Nebesheh. 

Yet  a later  period  had  left  its  remains  at  Illahun. 
In  Coptic  times,  about  the  sixth  and  seventh  century 
A.D.,  the  ground  all  about  the  temple,  and  on  a hill 
near  the  canal,  was  used  for  a cemetery.  Though  I 
could  not  spend  time  on  clearing  such  remains  myself, 
the  people  of  the  place  readily  grubbed  up  their 
forefathers,  and  disposed  of  their  garments  to  anyone 
who  would  buy  them.  I thus  obtained  a large 
quantity  of  embroideries  and  woven  stuffs,  the  best 
of  which  are  now  at  South  Kensington. 

Illahun  has  then  proved  of  great  value  to  our 
knowledge  of  Egyptian  civilization ; it  has  shown 
us  a completely  arranged  town  of  the  middle  king- 
dom ; it  has  surrounded  us  with  all  the  products  and 
manufactures  of  that  age  ; it  reveals  the  simultaneous 
use  of  finely  wrought  flint  tools  with  those  of  copper, 
when  bronze  was  yet  unknown  ; it  provides  us  with 
the  writings  of  the  period,  including  a will  two  thou- 
sand years  older  than  any  known  before  ; the  pyramid 
proves  to  be  of  a design  new  to  us,  and  contains  one 
of  the  finest  examples  of  mechanical  skill ; while  of 


ILLAHUN 


137 


later  ages  we  learn  the  date  of  Phoenician  pottery, 
and  of  the  earliest  figured  Greek  vases,  and  can  trace 
the  history  of  the  use  of  amulets.  Of  the  blanks  in 
the  history  of  civilization,  one  more  has  been  filled  up. 


■5-  Flint  Hippopotamus,  Twelfth  Dynasty. 


g6.  Bronze  Pans,  Nineteenth  Dynasty. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

GUROB. 

1889-90. 

At  the  mouth  of  the  Fayum,  on  tne  opposite  side 
to  Illahun,  stood  in  later  times  another  town,  founded 
by  Tahutmes  III,  and  ruined  under  Merenptah  ; thus 
its  history  falls  within  about  two-and-a-half  centuries. 
While  I was  working  at  Hawara  some  beads  and 
ornaments  were  brought  to  me  from  this  place  ; I soon 
went  to  see  it,  and  found  that  it  was  an  early  site  un- 
mixed with  any  later  remains.  In  the  beginning  of 
1889  I worked  out  part  of  the  town,  and  the  rest  of  it 
was  cleared  by  Mr.  Hughes-Hughes  in  the  end  of  that 
year,  while  I worked  at  Illahun.  The  general  arrange- 
ment of  it  was  a large  walled  enclosure,  within  which 
were  two  other  enclosures  side  by  side,  one  containing 
the  temple,  the  other  a small  town.  The  temple  had 
been  founded  by  Tahutmes  III,  and  had  lasted  through 
Khuenaten’s  changes  only  to  be  destroyed  soon  after, 
probably  by  Ramessu  II,  when  he  carried  away  the 


GUROB 


129 


temples  of  Illahun.  That 
in  the  reign  of  Merenptah 
is  indicated  by  the  sudden 
end  of  the  previous  abund- 
ance of  scarabs  and  rings 
with  the  kings’  names  at 
this  point ; of  later  times 
only  one  or  two  objects 
of  Ramessu  III  have  been 
found. 

Of  purely  Egyptian  ob- 
jects many  were  discover- 
ed, but  the  main  interest 
of  the  place  is  in  the  re- 
mains of  foreigners  from 


the  town  was  ruined  early 


97.  Bronze  Interlocking 
Hinges. 


98.  Bronze  Tools,  i : 6. 

the  Mediterranean  who  lived  here.  Of  Egyptian  work 


130  TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

we  may  mention  two  funeral  tablets  (one  now  at  Gizeh); 
a lion’s  head,  probably  the  terminal  to  the  side  of  a 
staircase  ; two  splendid  bronze  pans  (Group  96),  still 
bright  and  fresh  and  elastic,  most  skilfully  wrought 
(now  at  Gizeh) ; a beautiful  wooden  statuette  of  a lady 
named  Res,  clad  in  the  ribbed  drapery  of  the  Rames- 
side  age  (also  at  Gizeh) ; a statuette  of  a priestess, 


99.  Coffin  Head  of  Anen  the  Tursha  Official,  i : 16. 

and  a figure  of  a girl  swimming  holding  a duck,  carved 
in  wood  (at  Gizeh);  a wooden  box  for  papyri,  in- 
scribed (at  Gizeh) ; and  some  necklaces  found  in  the 
town.  Some  bronze  hinges,  hatchets,  chisels,  and 
knives  were  also  found,  one  by  one,  in  different  rooms. 

The  foreign  inhabitants,  although  conforming  to 
Egyptian  ways  in  some  respects,  have  left  many 


ioo.  Wooden  Statuettes  of  a Priestess,  and  the  Lady  Res. 

K 2 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


132 


traces  here.  Foremost  is  the  coffin  of  a high  official 
who  was  of  the  Tursha  race,  the 
Turseni,  probably,  of  the  northern 
Aegean.  The  ushabti  figure  of  a 
Ilittite,  Sadi-amia,  was  found  in 
an  adjoining  grave.  A wooden 
figure  of  a Hittite  harper,  wearing 
the  great  pigtail  of  his  race,  was 
picked  up  in  the  town.  A bronze 
101.  IIittite  Harper,  mirror,  with  a Phoenician  Venus 
holding  a dove  as  the  handle  of  it,  was  found  in  a 

tomb.  While  constantly 
Aegean  vases,  such  as 
those  of  the  first  period 
of  Mykenae,  are  found  in 
both  the  town  and  in 
tombs.  The  Greek  cus- 
tom of  a funereal  pyre 
remained  here  in  a modi- 
fied form  ; although  the 
body  appears  to  have 
been  buried  in  Egyptian 
fashion  (as  I found  light 
hair  on  some  of  the  mum- 
mies here),  yet  the  personal 
articles  were  all  burnt. 
Apparently  on  the  death 
of  the  owner  a hole  was 
dug-  in  the  floor  of  the 

o 

room ; into  this  were 
ioj.  Phoenician  Venus  Mirror,  placed  the  chair,  the  cloth- 
ing, the  mirror,  combs,  necklaces  and  toilet  articles,  the 


GUROB 


133 


glass  bottles,  the  blue-glazed  bowls  and  vases,  the 
alabaster  dishes,  the  knife  and  other  implements,  and 

the  best  pot- 

fL tery  of  the 

deceased. 

All  these 
were  burnt ; 
the  fire  was 
smothered 
with  pots- 
herds laid 
over  it;  earth 
was  then 
filled  in,  and 
the  brick 


103.  Aegean  Vases,  i : 2. 


floor  of  the  room  was  relaid.  No 
such  custom  is  ever  known  among  io4.bLueanDYellow 
Egyptians,  and  this  shows  again  the  Glass  Bottle. 
foreign  occupation  of  the  place.  We  know  from  in- 
scriptions how  the  Mediterranean  races,  Libyans, 


134  TEN  YEARS'  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

Akhaians,  Turseni,  and  others  had  pushed  into  Egypt 
from  the  west,  and  that  they  had  settled  in  the  Nile 
valley  to  even  somewhat  south  of  the  Fayum.  This 
place  was  evidently  then  one  of  their  settlements,  and 
its  sudden  fall  under  Merenptah  just  agrees  to  his 
expulsion  of  all  these  foreigners  in  the  fifth  year  of 


105.  Blue-glazed  Vases,  i :6. 


his  reign.  We  have  here  then  before  our  eyes  the 
remains  of  that  great  invasion  which  has  always 
hitherto  been  a literary  shadow  without  material 
substance. 

As  before  mentioned,  the  marks  on  pottery  so  often 
found  in  the  town  of  the  twelfth  dynasty  at  Illahun,  are 
also  found  at  Gurob.  The  list  of  signs  used  is  some- 
what different,  but  the  greater  part  may  be  identified  ; 
and  it  is  impossible  to  deny  that  they  are  the  same 
as  a whole,  though  naturally  modified  by  alteration, 
addition,  and  omission,  in  the  course  of  a thousand 
years.  Having  now,  therefore,  this  body  of  signs  in 
use  in  1200  B.  C.  in  a town  occupied  by  people  of  the 
Aegean  and  Asia  Minor,  Turseni,  Akhaians,  Hittites, 
and  others,  it  will  require  a very  certain  proof  of  the 


GUROB 


135 


supposed  Arabian  source  of  the  Phoenician  alphabet, 
before  we  can  venture  to  deny  that  we  have  here  the 
origin  of  the  Mediterranean  alphabets. 


106.  Blue-glazed  Bowls. 


Besides  these  remains,  Gurob  proved  to  be  a treasury 
of  a later  age.  In  the  Ptolemaic  period  some  town 


136  TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

had  existed  in  this  neighbourhood,  the  inhabitants  of 
which  were  buried  here  in  the  edge  of  the  desert,  apart 
from  the  earlier  town.  Their  mummies  are  destitute 
of  amulets  or  ornaments,  and  have  all  gone  to  black 
dust, their  cartonnage  coverings  are  without  names, and 
of  the  most  conventional  and  uninteresting  kind,  and 
their  coffins  are  of  prodigious  rudeness,  worthy  of  a 
savage  of  the  Pacific  ; while  their  tombs  are  rude  holes 
scooped  in  the  sandy  soil.  In  no  respect  would  these 
burials  seem  worth  notice,  had  not  the  cartonnage 
makers  used  up  old  papyri  as  the  cheapest  material 
for  their  trade.  But  what  was  worthless  in  the  days 
of  Philadelphos  is  a treasure  now;  the  soldiers’  wills 
appointing  as  executors  the  sovereigns,  Philadelphos 
and  Arsinoe,  the  private  letters,  the  leaves  of  Plato 
and  unknown  Greek  plays,  the  accounts, — all  these 
can  be  unfolded  from  what  looks  like  hopeless  rubbish. 
The  cartonnage  in  the  earlier  examples  was  glued 
together,  and  this  has  not  only  injured  the  writing,  but 
almost  always  served  as  a bait  to  worms,  who  have 
destroyed  it ; but  later  on  the  makers  found  that 
simple  wetting  and  moulding  would  suffice,  and  we 
can  now  often  peel  apart  sheet  after  sheet  of  writing 
as  fresh  as  in  the  days  when  Cleopatra  was  yet 
unborn. 

Some  remains  of  even  later  times  are  found  here; 
and  I obtained  from  native  diggers  many  Coptic 
embroideries,  and  a beautiful  set  of  Roman  glass 
vessels. 

The  essential  value  of  Gurob  is  in  giving  us  a 
thoroughly  fixed  date  for  the  earlier  stages  of  the 
civilization  of  Greece;  in  showing  the  races  of  the 


GUROB 


137 


Mediterranean  at  home  in  Egypt ; and  in  explaining 
how  far  they  had  imbibed  Egyptian  culture  during 
their  first  sojourn  on  the  Nile  ; and  what  they  may  be 
expected  to  have  borrowed  from  thence  at  this  early 
period. 


107.  Ivory  Duck  Box.  i : 2. 


ioS.  Pyramid  of  Medum. 


CHAPTER  X. 

MEDUM. 

1891. 

After  having  sampled  the  civilization  of  each  of  the 
great  periods  of  Egyptian  history,  back  to  the  twelfth 
dynasty,  as  described  in  preceding  chapters,  I longed 
more  than  ever  to  discover  the  beginning  of  things. 
For  this  Medum  offered  the  best  chance  for  reaching 
back.  The  presumption  was  that  it  belonged  to  the 
beginning  cf  the  fourth  dynasty ; and  here  we  might 
perhaps  find  something  still  undeveloped,  and  be  able 
to  gauge  our  way  in  the  unknown.  Could  we  there  see 
the  incipient  stages,  or  at  least  their  traces?  Could 
we  learn  how  conventional  forms  and  ideas  had  arisen  ? 
Could  we  find  Egypt  not  yet  full  grown,  still  in  its 
childhood  ? 

I called  together  a selected  lot  of  my  old  workers 


MEDUM 


139 


from  Illahun,  and  we  went  over  and  made  a camp  at  the 
cemetery  of  Medum  ; there  we  lived  over  four  months, 
and  I unravelled  what  could  be  traced  on  the  questions 
that  await  us.  Broadly,  it  may  be  said,  that  we  learned 
more  of  our  ignorance  than  our  knowledge  : the  be- 
ginning seems  as  remote  as  ever,  for  nearly  all  the 
conventions  are  already  perfected  there ; but  many 
new  questions  have  been  opened,  and  we  at  least  see 
more  of  the  road,  though  the  goal  is  still  out  of  view. 

The  first  question  to  settle  was  that  of  the  age 
of  the  pyramid  and  cemetery.  All  the  indications 
pointed  to  as  early  an  age  as  we  knew,  but  not  before 
Seneferu,  the  first  king  of  the  fourth  dynasty,  and  pre- 
decessor of  Khufu.  Yet  the  theory  that  the  pyra- 
mids were  built  in  chronological  order,  from  north  to 
south,  had  led  some  to  suppose  that  this  was  of  the 
twelfth  dynasty. 

The  most  promising  means  of  ascertaining  the  age, 
was  to  search  for  any  remains  of  the  pyramid  temple  ; 
on  the  chance  of  inscriptions,  such  as  I had  found  of 
Khafra  at  Gizeh,  and  of  Usertesen  II  at  Illahun.  But 
where  was  the  temple?  No  sign  of  such  a building 
could  be  seen  anywhere  to  the  east  of  the  pyramid,  and 
some  holes  I sunk  in  the  space  within  the  pyramid 
enclosure  showed  nothing.  I hesitated  for  some  days, 
while  other  work  was  going  on,  looking  at  the  great 
bank  of  rubbish  against  the  side  of  the  pyramid,  rub- 
bish accumulated  by  the  destruction  of  its  upper  part. 
At  last  I determined  on  the  large  excavation  needful, 
for  I felt  that  we  must  solve  the  matter  if  possible. 
So,  marking  out  a space  which  would  have  held  two 
or  three  good-sized  London  houses,  and  knowing  that 


140  TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

we  must  go  as  deep  as  a tall  house  before  we  could 
get  any  result,  I began  a work  of  several  weeks,  with 
as  many  men  as  could  be  efficiently  put  into  the  area. 
At  first  it  was  easy  enough,  but  soon  we  found  large 
blocks,  which  we  could  scarcely  move ; and  these 
slipped  away  and  rolled  down  all  the  stages  of  our 
work,  upsetting  all  our  regular  cutting.  But  they  all 
had  to  be  got  out  of  the  way,  by  lifting,  rolling  or 
breaking  up.  At  last  we  had  a hole  that  could  be 
seen  for  miles  off  across  the  valley,  and  so  deep  that  the 
sides  looked  perilously  high  on  either  hand  when  one 
stood  in  the  bottom.  The  pavement  was  reached, 
and  we  found  at  one  end  of  our  great  excavation  a 
wall,  and  one  side  of  a large  stele  just  showing. 

We  needed  then  to  lengthen  the  pit,  and  the  falls 
from  our  fresh  work  soon  buried  all  that  we  had  found. 
A fresh  trouble  came  with  a strong  gale,  which  blew 
away  the  sand,  and  let  the  loose  stones  come  rattling 
down  from  the  rubbish  which  formed  the  sides  of  our 
hole.  One  great  fall  came  near  burying  us  in  the 
bottom  of  the  work  : and  it  was  three  weeks  before 
I again  saw  the  building.  At  last  we  uncovered  the 
court-yard,  and  found  two  steles  ; and  moreover  instead 
of  a mere  court  there  appeared  a doorway  on  the  east 
side,  and  crawling  in  I found  a chamber  and  passage 
still  roofed  over  and  quite  perfect.  Wehad,  in  fact, found 
an  absolutely  complete,  though  small,  temple ; not  a 
stone  was  missing,  nor  a piece  knocked  off ; the  steles 
and  the  altar  between  them  stood  just  as  when  they  were 
set  up  ; and  the  oldest  dated  building  in  the  land  has 
stood  unimpaired  amidst  all  the  building  and  the  de- 
struction that  has  gone  on  in  Egypt  throughout  history. 


MEDUM 


141 

The  question  about  the  age  was  settled  indirectly. 
The  original  construction  had  no  ornament  or  inscrip- 
tions. But  numerous  mentions  of  Seneferu,  both  during 
the  ages  near  his  own,  and  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty, 
showed  plainly  what  the  Egyptians  knew  about  the 
builder. 


109.  Court  of  Temple. 


The  pyramid  of  Medum  differs  from  nearly  all  the 
others.  It  is  really  the  primitive  tomb-building  or 
mastaba,  such  as  often  is  found  with  successive  coats 
added  around  it  in  the  cemetery  here  ; but  this  was 
enlarged  by  seven  coats  of  masonry,  widening  and 
heightening  it,  until  a final  coat  over  all  covered  the 
slope  from  top  to  bottom  at  one  angle.  It  is  thus  the 
final  stage  of  complication  of  the  mastaba  tomb,  and 
the  first  type  of  the  pyramid.  Later  kings  saved  the 
intermediate  stages,  and  built  pyramids  all  at  one 


142 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


design,  without  any  additions.  This  architectural 
feature  is  another  proof  of  the  early  age  of  this  pyra- 
mid. And  it  is  remarkably  akin  to  the  pyramid  of 
Khufu  which  follows  it.  Both  have  the  same  angle  ; 
and  therefore  the  ratio  of  height  to  circuit,  being  that 
of  a radius  to  its  circle,  holds  good.  The  approxi- 
mate ratio  adopted  was  7 to  44  ; the  dimensions  of 
the  pyramid  of  Seneferu  are  7 and  44  times  a length 
of  25  cubits  ; those  of  Khufu  are  7 and  44  times  a 
length  of  40  cubits.  Hence  the  design  of  the  size  of 


no.  Section  of  Pyramid,  i : 2000. 
the  great  pyramid  of  Gizeh  was  made  by  Khufu  on 
the  lines  of  the  pyramid  of  Medum,  which  was  built 
by  his  predecessor.  Fragments  of  Seneferu’s  wooden 
coffin  were  found  inside  the  pyramid  ; but  the  place 
had  long  since  been  plundered. 

The  tombs  at  Medum  proved  of  great  interest. 


MEDUM 


I43 


One  of  the  largest  was  built  on  a very  irregular 
foundation ; and  below  the  ground  level  I found  the 
walls  by  which  the  builders  had  guided  their  work. 
Outside  of  each  corner  a wall  was  built  up  to  the 
ground  level ; the  sloping  profile  of  the  side  was  drawn 
on  it ; and  then  the  wall  was  founded  and  built  in  line 
between  the  profiles.  But  the  most  attractive  matter 
was  the  study  of  the  inscriptions  on  the  tombs,  which 
show  us  the  earliest  forms  of  the  hieroglyphs  yet 


known.  To  preserve  and  examine  their  record  I made 
a full-sized  copy  of  the  whole,  and  then  published  that 
reduced  by  photo-lithography.  The  evidence  is  the 
most  valuable  that  we  can  yet  obtain,  on  the  earliest 
traceable  civilization  of  the  Egyptians.  We  have  no 
remains  certainly  dated  older  than  these ; and  the 
objects  used  as  hieroglyphs  here  must  have  been 
already  long  familiar  for  them  to  have  been  used  for 


hi.  Columns  of  Third  Dynasty. 


144 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


signs.  They  therefore  lead  us  back  to  the  third 
dynasty,  or  even  earlier  times  ; and  they  show  us 
various  objects  which  are  as  yet  quite  unknown  to  us 
till  much  later  ages. 

We  can  thus  estimate  the  architecture  of  the  pre- 
pyramid period.  There  were  columns  with  spreading 
capitals  and  abaci,  set  up  in  rows  to  support  the  roof. 
There  were  papyrus  columns,  with  a curious  bell-top 
on  the  flower,  the  source  of  the  heavier  conventional 
form  of  later  times ; these  were  probably  carved  in 
wood,  and  originated  from  a wooden  tent  pole.  There 
were  octagonal  fluted  columns  tapering  to  the  top, 
and  painted  with  a black  dado,  a white  ornamental 
band,  and  red  above.  There  was  the  cornice  of 
uraeus  serpents,  which  is  so  familiar  in  later  times. 
And  the  granaries  were  already  built  with  sloping 
sides,  as  seen  on  later  tombs.  In  short,  all  the 
essentials  of  an  advanced  architecture  seem  to  have 
been  quite  familiar  to  the  Egyptians ; and  we  must 
cease  to  argue  from  the  simplicity  of  the  religious 
buildings  which  we  know— such  as  the  granite  temples 
of  Gizeh,  or  the  limestone  temple  of  Medum — for 
deciding  on  the  architecture  of  the  fourth  and  third 
dynasties.  We  seem  to  be  as  far  from  a real  beginning 
as  ever. 

The  animals  drawn  here  show  that  the  domestica- 
tion of  various  species  was  no  uncommon  thing ; 
apes,  monkeys,  many  kinds  of  horned  cattle,  ibexes, 
&c.,  and  various  birds,  all  appear  familiarly  in  this 
age.  And  of  the  wild  birds  the  eagle,  owl,  and  wag- 
tail, are  admirably  figured,  far  better  than  in  later 
times.  The  Libyan  race  was  already  a civilized  ally 


MEDUM 


145 


of  Egypt,  using  bows  and  arrows  much  as  we  see 
them  subsequently.  The  tools  employed  were  of  the 
established  types ; the  adze  and  the  chisel  of  bronze ; 
the  sickle  of  flint  teeth  set  in  wood  ; the  axe  of  stone  ; 
the  head  of  the  bow  drill — all  these  are  shown  us. 
And  the  exactitude  of  the  standards  of  measure  was 
a matter  of  careful  concern  ; the  cubit  here  does  not 
differ  from  the  standard  of  later  times  more  than  the 
thickness  of  a bit  of  stout  card.  The  draught-board 
was  exactly  the  same  as  that  which  is  found  down  to 
Greek  times. 

Some  matters,  however,  point  to  a stage  which 
passed  away  soon  after.  The  sign  for  a seal  is  not  a 
scarab,  or  a ring,  but  a cylinder  of  jasper,  set  in  gold 
ends,  and  turning  on  a pin  attached  to  a necklace  of 
stone  beads.  Cylinders  are  often  met  with  in  early 
times,  but  died  out  of  use  almost  entirely  by  the 
eighteenth  dynasty.  This  points  to  a connection 
with  Babylonia  in  early  times.  The  numerals  are  all 
derived  from  various  lengths  of  rope  ; pointing  to  an 
original  reckoning  on  knotted  ropes,  as  in  many  other 
countries.  And  some  suggestion  of  the  original  home 
of  Egyptian  culture  near  the  sea,  is  made  by  the  signs 
for  water  being  all  black  or  dark  blue-green.  This  is 
a colour  that  no  one  living  on  the  muddy  Nile  would 
ever  associate  with  water  ; rather  should  we  suppose 
it  to  have  originated  from  the  clear  waters  of  the  Red 
Sea. 

Another  glimpse  of  the  prehistoric  age  in  Egypt  is 
afforded  by  the  burials  at  Medum.  The  later  people 
always  buried  at  full  length,  and  with  some  provision 
for  the  body,  such  as  food,  head-rests,  &c.  Such 

I. 


146  TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

burials  are  found  among  the  nobles  at  Medum.  But 
most  of  the  people  there  buried  in  a conti acted  form, 
nose  and  knees,  or  at  least  with  the  thigh  bent  square 
with  the  body  and  heels  drawn  up.  And  moreover, 
no  food-vessels  or  other  objects  are  put  in.  Yet 
there  was  no  mere  indifference  shown ; the  bodies  are 
in  deep  well  tombs,  often  placed  in  large  wooden 
boxes,  which  must  have  been  valuable  in  Egypt,  and 
always  lying  with  the  head  to  the  north,  facing  the 
east.  Here  is  clearly  a total  difference  in  beliefs,  and 
probably  also  in  race.  We  know  that  two  races,  the 
aquiline-nosed  and  the  snouty,  can  be  distinguished 
in  early  times ; and  it  seems  that  the  aborigines  used 
the  contracted  burial,  and  the  dynastic  race  the 
extended  burial,  which — with  its  customs — soon  be- 
came the  national  mode. 

Is  it  likely  that  the  bulk  of  the  people  should  have 
resisted  this  change  for  some  800  years,  and  then  have 
suddenly  adopted  it  in  two  or  three  generations? 
Does  not  this  rapid  adoption  of  the  upper-class  cus- 
tom, between  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  dynasty  and 
the  immediately  succeeding  times,  suggest  that  the 
dynastic  race  did  not  enter  Egypt  till  shortly  before 
we  find  their  monuments  ? At  least,  the  notion  that 
the  stages  preceding  the  known  monuments  should 
be  sought  outside  of  Egypt,  and  that  this  is  the  ex- 
planation of  the  dearth  of  objects  before  the  fourth 
dynasty,  is  strengthened  by  the  change  of  custom  and 
belief  which  we  then  find. 

The  mutilations  and  diseases  that  come  to  light  are 
remarkable.  One  man  had  lost  his  left  leg  below  the 
knee ; another  had  his  hand  cut  off  and  put  in  the 


MEDUM 


147 


tomb ; others  seem  to  have  had  bones  excised,  and 
placed  separately  with  the  body.  In  one  case  acute  and 
chronic  inflammation  and  rheumatism  of  the  back  had 
united  most  of  the  vertebrae  into  a solid  mass  down 
the  inner  side.  In  another  case  there  had  been  a 
rickety  curvature  of  the  spine.  To  find  so  many 
peculiarities  in  only  about  fifteen  skeletons  which  I 
collected,  is  strange.  These  are  all  in  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons  now,  for  study. 

Medum  has,  then,  led  us  some  way  further  back 
than  we  had  reached  before  in  the  history  of  Egyptian 
civilization;  but  it  has  shown  how  vastly  our  informa- 
tion must  be  increased  before  the  problems  are  solved. 


CHAPTER  XI. 


THE  FRESH  LIGHT  ON  THE  PAST. 

It  might  seem  as  if  the  researches  described  in 
these  chapters  were,  though  interesting  in  them- 
selves, yef  not  of  particular  account  in  the  wider 
view  of  human  history  and  civilization.  It  is  to  focus 
together  this  new  information,  to  show  the  results 
which  flow  from  it,  and  to  give  a connected  idea  of 
our  fresh  light  on  the  past,  that  this  chapter  is  placed 
here.  The  application  of  scientific  principles  to 
archaeology,  the  opening  of  fresh  methods  of  enquiry, 
and  the  rigorous  notice  of  the  period  of  everything 
found,  have  been  as  fruitful  in  the  East  as  it  has 
proved  to  be  in  the  West. 

In  Egypt,  the  oldest  condition  of  the  present 
country  that  is  known — the  beginning  of  h'story  as 
distinct  from  geology — is  an  age  of  great  rainfall  and 
denudation  ; succeeding  to  the  geological  age,  in 
which  the  existing  masses  of  surface  gravels  were 
laid  down.  This  rain  nourished  a dense  vegetation, 
of  which  the  chance  remains  may  be  seen  in  the 
various  silicified  forests  which  occur  where  circum- 
stances favoured  their  preservation.  The  amount  of 
water  falling  on  the  country  swelled  the  volume  of 


THE  FRESH  LIGHT  ON  THE  PAST 


149 


the  Nile  to  far  beyond  its  greatest  modern  extent. 
Between  the  cliffs  on  either  hand  it  ran  certainly 
hundreds  of  feet  higher  than  at  present,  probably  in 
part  as  an  estuary.  The  cliffs  all  along  the  Nile  are 
worn  by  water  running  at  a great  height ; and  the 
debris  brought  down  from  the  side  valleys  is  piled 
up  in  hills  at  the  mouths  of  the  valleys,  in  a way 
that  could  only  occur  where  they  discharged  into 
deep  water.  That  the  rain  sufficed  to  fill  up  such 
a vast  volume,  we  can  believe,  when  we  see  the  gorges 
cut  back  in  the  sides  of  the  Nile  cliffs  by  the  lateral 
drainage.  These  often  run  back  for  some  miles, 
ploughed  out  by  receding  waterfalls— small  Niagaras 
— which  have  each  left  at  the  valley  head  their  pre- 
cipitous fall  of  polished  rock,  with  a great  basin  below 
it  hollowed  by  the  force  of  the  torrent.  Such  was  the 
source  of  the  power  which  has  scoured  out  the  whole 
Nile  valley  for  a depth  of  over  two  hundred  feet. 
High  up  on  the  hills  between  the  Nile  and  the 
Fayum,  the  very  crest  of  the  hill  is  entirely  of  gravels 
and  boulders,  which  can  only  have  been  deposited 
when  there  was  a dead  level  at  that  height  across  the 
Nile  valley.  All  the  depths  of  the  Nile  below  those 
hills  have  been  scoured  out  by  the  rainfall  and  the 
torrent  of  the  stream,  some  miles  in  width,  and  prob- 
ably one  to  two  hundred  feet  in  depth.  And  the  age 
of  this  is  not  merely  geological  and  beyond  human 
interests.  Man  was  there  at  this  time,  as  his  rude 
flint  implement,  river-worn  and  rolled,  high  upon  the 
hills,  now  shows  us.  (See  Chap.  VI.  Fig.  58.) 

We  come  down  an  age  later.  The  Nile  had  fallen 
to  near  its  present  level,  but  still  filled  its  whole  bed 


150  TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

to  perhaps  fifty  feet  deep.  Vegetation  still  grew  on 
the  hills  ; for  we  find  traces  of  man  at  this  time,  and 
he  must  have 'lived  on  something.  Where  he  lived 
we  can  guess  by  the  flints  which  he  fashioned,  and 
which  the  heavy  rains  swept  away  down  the  valleys, 
and  bedded  in  the  shoals  of  debris  in  the  reduced  and 
shallow  river.  These  flints  are  now  to  be  picked  out 
from  the  sides  of  later  cuttings  which  the  rain  has 
made  through  its  old  river  deposits,  now  high  and  dry 
in  air ; and  it  is  at  the  mouth  of  the  valley  of  the 
tombs  of  the  kings  at  Thebes  that  these  flints  have 
been  collected. 

After  that,  we  know  nothing  more  of  man  until  we 
find  that  the  country  was  in  its  present  state, — without 
any  rainfall  for  practical  purposes,  the  hills  all  barren 
desert,  the  Nile  only  filling  the  bottom  of  its  old  bed  for 
a few  months  of  the  year,  and  meandering  the  rest  of 
the  time  in  a channel  cut  in  its  own  mud,  and  man 
cultivating  the  old  bed  of  the  river  when  it  is  not  over- 
flowed. The  civilization  that  we  find  before  us  in  the 
earliest  known  history  appears  elaborate  and  perfect. 
After  that,  only  slow  changes  of  fashion  and  taste 
influenced  it,  and  but  few  discoveries  of  importance 
were  made  during  thousands  of  years  which  ensued. 
That  this  civilization  was  imported  by  an  incoming 
race  seems  most  probable;  and  the  dynastic  Egyptians 
found  already  in  the  country  an  aboriginal  population, 
whose  features,  whose  beliefs,  and  whose  customs, 
differed  much  from  their  own.  The  two  races  had 
not  yet  amalgamated  when  we  first  come  into  their 
presence  at  Medum;  but  soon  after  that  all  signs  of 
difference  cease. 


THE  FRE’SH  LIGHT  ON  THE  PAST  151 

This  earliest  civilization  was  completely  master  of 
the  arts  of  combined  labour,  of  masonry,  of  sculpture, 
of  metal-working,  of  turning,  of  carpentry,  of  pottery, 
of  weaving,  of  dyeing,  and  other  elements  of  a highly 
organized  social  life ; and  in  some  respects  their 
work  is  quite  the  equal  of  any  that  has  been  done 
by  mankind  in  later  ages.  Though  simple,  it  is  of 
extreme  ability ; and  it  is  only  in  resources,  and  not 
in  skill,  that  it  has  ever  been  surpassed.  Certain 
products  were  then  scarcely  if  at  all  known,  and  it  is 
in  the  application  of  these  that  the  civilization  of  later 
times  shows  a difference.  No  metal  was  used  except 
copper,  and  hence  flint  was  largely  needed.  And 
glass  was  probably  unknown,  although  glazes  were  in 
use.  But  in  most  other  respects  the  changes  of  later 
times  are  rather  due  to  economy  of  production,  and  an 
increased  demand  for  cheap  imitations. 

The  work  of  the  great  period  of  the  twelfth  dynasty 
differs  mainly  in  the  freer  use  of  writing,  the  greater 
quantity  and  poorer  quality  of  the  sculptures  or 
paintings,  and  the  introduction  of  glass  and  of  glassy 
frits  for  colouring. 

The  next  great  period,  the  eighteenth  to  the  nine- 
teenth dynasty,  is  marked  by  the  use  of  bronze,  and 
the  disappearance  of  flint  tools.  The  art  of  glazing  was 
much  developed,  and  attained  a brilliancy  and  variety 
of  colouring,  and  a boldness  of  design,  which  was  never 
again  reached,  unless  perhaps  by  the  mediaeval  Orient- 
als. But  artistically  the  finest  work  of  this  age  scarcely 
reaches  the  perfection  of  the  sculpture  and  drawing 
which  had  already  passed  away. 

The  next  serious  change  was  the  introduction  of 


152 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


iron,  of  which  there  is  no  satisfactory  evidence  until 
about  800  B.C.  Iron  may  have  been  known  perhaps 
as  a curiosity,  just  as  one  example  of  bronze  occurs 
two  thousand  years  before  it  came  into  actual  use ; 
but  it  had  no  effect  on  the  arts.  And  shortly  after 
came  the  Egyptian  renascence,  when  the  cycle  of 
invention  was  run  through,  and  the  Egyptians  were 
reduced  to  copying  slavishly,  and  without  the  original 
spirit,  the  works  of  their  ancestors.  The  Western  in- 
fluence became  predominant,  and  importations  instead 
of  development  govern  the  succeeding  changes. 

But  it  is  rather  in  Europe  than  in  Egypt  that  our 
interest  centres.  As  no  European  literature  remains 
to  us  older  than  the  sixth  or  seventh  century  B.C. 
(except  the  oral  poems),  it  has  been  too  readily 
assumed  that  no  civilization  worthy  of  the  name  could 
have  dwelt  here,  and  that  we  are  indebted  to  the  East 
for  all  our  skill.  So  far  from  this  being  the  case,  it 
now  seems  that  we  must  almost  reverse  the  view. 
We  have  in  the  Egyptian  records  the  accounts  of 
a great  European  confederacy,  which  smote  Egypt 
again  and  again, —Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Italy,  and 
Libya,  all  leagued  together.  We  now  know,  from  the 
objects  found  in  Egypt,  that  these  peoples  were  dwell- 
ing there  as  settlers  so  far  back  as  1400  B.  C.,  if  not 
indeed  before  2000  B.C.  From  the  chronology  of  the 
arts  now  ascertained,  we  can  date  the  great  civilization 
of  Mykenae  to  about  1600  to  1000  B.C.  (as  I have 
stated  in  ‘ Notes  on  Mykenae,’  Journal  of  Hellenic 
Studies,  1891)  ; and  we  begin  to  see  a great  past  rising 
before  us,  dumb,  but  full  of  meaning.  Some  of  the 
metals  were  known  in  Europe  before  they  appear  in 


THE  FRESH  LIGHT  ON  THE  PAST  1 53 

use  in  Egypt : the  use  of  bronze  is  quite  as  old  in  the 
north  as  on  the  south  of  the  Mediterranean  ; and  the 
tin  of  Egypt  probably  came  from  the  mines  of  Hun- 
gary and  Saxony,  which  most  likely  supplied  Europe 
at  that  time.  Iron  appears  in  use  in  Europe  as  soon 
as  in  Egypt.  The  best  forms  of  tools  are  known  in 
Italy  two  or  three  centuries  before  Egypt  possessed 
them. 

What  then  may  be  concluded  as  to  Europe,  from 
our  present  point  of  view  ? That  Europe  had  an  in- 
digenous civilization,  as  independent  of  Egypt  and 
Babylonia  as  was  the  indigenous  Aryan  civilization  of 
India.  That  this  civilization  has  acquired  arts  inde- 
pendently, just  as  much  as  India  has,  and  that  Europe 
has  given  to  the  East  as  much  as  it  has  borrowed  from 
there.  As  early  as  1600  B.C.,  it  appears  that  a con- 
siderable civilization  existed  in  Greece,  which  flourished 
in  the  succeeding  centuries,  especially  in  alliance  with 
Libya.  Probably  it  was  already  beginning  in  the 
period  of  the  thirteenth  dynasty,  before  2000  B.C. 
By  about  1400  B.C.  a great  proficiency  in  the  arts  is 
seen  ; elaborate  metal-work  and  inlaying  was  made, 
influenced  by  Egyptian  design,  but  neither  made  in 
Egypt,  nor  by  Egyptians.  Glazed  pottery  painted  with 
designs  was  successfully  made,  and  the  arts  of  glazing 
and  firing  were  mastered.  And  by  iioo  B.C.  this  civil- 
ization was  already  decadent.  Moreover  this  was  not 
only  in  a corner  of  Europe  ; it  had  contact  with  the 
North  as  well  as  with  Italy  and  Africa,  and  is  at  one 
with  the  culture  of  the  bronze  age,  of  which  it  is  the 
crown  and  flower.  Across  Europe,  from  the  Greek 
peninsula  to  the  Baltic,  this  civilization  stretches ; 


154 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


and  though  in  Greece  it  ripened  to  an  early  fall,  and 
was  destroyed  by  the  barbaric  Dorian  invasion,  it  re- 
tained its  hardy  power  in  the  North  and  in  Italy. 
When  we  come  down  to  about  8co  B.C.,  we  find  that 
the  arts  stood  high  in  Northern  Italy.  The  require- 
ments of  the  carpenters  and  joiners  of  that  age  had 
led  them  to  invent  the  most  perfect  forms  of  chisels  ; 
and  our  mortising  chisel  and  flat  chisel  with  a tang 
have  not  received  any  improvement  in  the  details  of 
their  form  for  2700  years.  The  bronze  age  is  the 
source  of  the  objects  we  now  use.  Thence  these  types 
were  carried  into  Egypt  a couple  of  centuries  later 
by  the  Greeks.  When  we  descend  further  we  see 
this  independent  culture  of  Europe  prominent.  The 
Saxons  and  Northmen  did  not  borrow  their  weapons, 
their  laws,  or  their  thoughts  from  Greece  or  Italy.  The 
Celts  swamped  the  south  of  Europe  at  their  pleasure  ; 
and,  against  the  fullest  development  of  Greek  military 
science,  they  were  yet  able  to  penetrate  far  south  and 
plunder  Delphi.  They  were  powerful  enough  to  raid 
Italy  right  across  the  Etrurian  territory.  When  we 
look  further  east,  we  see  the  Dacians  with  weapons 
and  ornaments  and  dresses  which  belong  to  their  own 
civilization,  and  were  not  borrowed  from  Greece.  In 
short,  Greece  and  Italy  did  not  civilise  Europe ; they 
only  headed  the  civilization  for  a brief  period.  And  the 
Italian  influence,  which  was  much  the  more  powerful, 
only  lasted  for  a couple  of  centuries.  From  Caesar's 
campaigns  to  the  end  of  the  Antonines  is  the  whole  time 
of  Italian  supremacy.  After  that  there  never  was  a 
Roman  emperor,  excepting  a few  ephemeral  reigns. 
The  centre  of  power  and  authority  in  Europe  was  in 


THE  FRESH  LIGHT  ON  THE  PAST  T 55 

the  Balkan  peninsula.  The  emperors  were  mainly 
natives  of  that  region  ; and  the  northern  Holy  Roman 
Empire  of  Germany  has  its  roots  practically  in  the 
third  century.  Civilization  in  Europe  is,  then,  an  inde- 
pendent growth,  borrowing  from,  and  lending  to,  the 
East.  In  the  van  of  this  group  of  races  have  come  in 
turn  Mykenaean  Greece,  then  Etruria,  Hellas,  Rome, 
Dacia  and  Pannonia,  the  Lombards,  and  the  N orthmen ; 
and  each  in  turn  have  impressed  their  character  on 
those  peoples  who  were  less  advanced.  Our  common 
belief  in  the  overshadowing  importance  of  Rome  in  all 
our  history  is  probably  largely  influenced  by  our  lit- 
erary history  being  derived  from  Roman  sources,  and 
this  Italian  view  being  fed  for  ecclesiastical  purposes  in 
the  Middle  Ages.  In  the  broader  view  of  the  history 
of  civilization  in  Europe,  the  spread  of  law  and  Latin 
in  Southern  Europe  is  perhaps  Rome’s  main  result. 
But  we  must  not  forget  that  the  Italian  supremacy 
was  quite  as  brief,  if  more  potent,  than  that  of  other 
races  who  have  led  the  way  before  and  since. 

We  can  now  see  somewhat  of  the  wide  results 
which  have  come  to  a great  extent  from  the  study  of 
Egyptian  civilization  recorded  in  these  pages,  and 
the  comparison  of  it  with  other  countries.  That 
vastly  more  remains  to  be  worked  out  is  painfully 
seen.  We  are  only  yet  on  the  threshold  of  under- 
standing the  sources  of  the  knowledge,  the  arts,  and 
the  culture,  which  we  have  inherited  from  a hundred 
generations. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


THE  ART  OF  EXCAVATING. 

Probably  most  people  have  somewhat  the  ideas  of 
a worthy  lady,  who  asked  me  how  to  begin  to  excavate 
a ruined  town — should  she  begin  to  dig  at  the  top  or  at 
the  side  ? A cake  or  a raised  pie  was  apparently"  in 
her  mind,  and  the  only  question  was  where  to  best 
reach  the  inside  of  it.  Now  there  are  ruins  and  ruins  : 
they  may  differ  greatly  in  original  nature,  in  the  way 
they  have  been  destroyed,  and  in  the  history  of  their 
degradation.  The  only  rule  that  may  be  called 
general,  is  that  digging  must  be  systematic;  chance 
trenches  or  holes  seldom  produce  anything  in  them- 
selves, they  are  but  feelers.  The  main  acquirement 
always  needed  is  plenty  of  imagination.  Imagination 
is  the  fire  of  discovery ; the  best  of  servants,  though 
the  worst  of  masters.  A habit  of  reasoning  out  the 
most  likely"  cause,  and  all  other  possible  causes,  for 
the  condition  of  things  as  seen,  is  essential.  If 
there  is  a slope  of  the  ground,  a ridge,  a hollow — Why" 
is  it  there  ? What  can  have  produced  it  ? and  Which 
cause  is  the  most  probable  for  it  ? The  mere  form  of 
the  ground  will  often  show  plainly  what  is  beneath  it. 
Is  there  a smooth  uniform  mound  of  large  size  ? Then 
a mass  ofhouse  ruins  of  a town  may  be  expected.  Is 


THE  ART  OF  EXCAVATING 


157 


there  a steep  edge  to  it  around  ? Then  there  was  a 
wall,  either  of  the  town  or  of  some  one  large  build- 
ing which  forms  the  wrhole  ruin.  Is  there  a ring  of 
mounds  with  a central  depression  ? Then  there  was  a 
temple  or  large  permanent  building,  with  house  ruins 
around  it.  Is  there  a gentle  sljpe  up  one  side,  and  a 


1 1 2.  Forms  of  Rubbish-heap,  and  of  Ruins  of  Building. 
sharp  fall  on  the  other?  Then  it  is  a rubbish  mound. 
Is  the  mass  high  above  the  general  soil  ? Then  several 
successive  layers  of  habitation  may  be  expected. 
So,  even  from  afar,  some  ideas  may  be  gleaned  before 
setting  foot  on  a ruined  site. 

When  we  reach  our  town  and  walk  over  it,  much 
more  can  be  seen  of  what  is  beneath.  Very  likely  it 
seems  all  irregular,  hillocky,  dusty  ground,  and  who 
can  say  what  it  may  cover  ? In  one  place,  however, 
we  find  that  there  are  no  dhips  or  potsherds  lying 
about : track  around,  and  find  the  space  of  this  clear- 
ance, probably  it  runs  along  for  some  distance ; you 
are  on  the  top  of  a mud- brick  wall,  denuded  down 
to  the  level  of  the  rubbish  in  which  it  is  buried. 
Follow  the  clear  space,  and  you  will  outline  the  forti- 
fications of  the  city  or  its  temple.  Or  perhaps  you 
notice  a difference  in  the  vegetation — no  plants  will 
grow  on  particular  ground  ; here  is  probably  a mass  of 
hard  mud-brick  or  stonework,  without  moisture  or 
nutriment,  and  you  will  thus  find  the  walls.  Or  there 
is  a hollow  or  old  pit  met  with  ; here  the  modern 
natives  have  been  digging  out  stone  masonry,  and 


158 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


around  it,  or  below,  may  be  the  rest  of  a building. 
Some  symmetrical  form  of  the  mounds  can  be  detected, 
and  we  are  perhaps  led  at  once  to  the  temple,  or  to 
trace  out  the  streets  of  the  town  Or  a patcl  of 
ground  is  reddened  with  fire,  showing  that  a house  has 
been  burnt  there,  and  probably  stone  and  metal  and 
pottery  may  remain  intact  in  the  ruins.  But  our 
special  notice  must  be  given  to  the  potsherds  lying 
strewn  all  over  the  surface.  Pottery  is  the  very  key 
to  digging  ; to  know  the  varieties  of  it,  and  the  age  of 
each,  is  the  alphabet  of  work.  Not  that  it  is  more 
distinctive  in  itseli  than  most  other  products  of  various 
ages  ; but  it  is  so  vastly  commoner  than  anything  else, 
that  a place  may  be  dated  in  a minute  by  its  pottery 
on  the  surface,  which  would  require  a month’s  digging 
in  the  inside  of  it  to  discover  as  much  from  inscriptions 
or  sculptures.  A survey  showing  the  form  of  the 
ground,  and  the  position  of  every  fragment  or  indica- 
tion that  can  be  of  use,  is  essential  to  understanding 
it ; and  will  often  point  out,  by  the  probable  symmetry 
of  parts,  what  are  the  best  spots  to  examine  first. 

Having  then  made  out  as  much  as  possible  before- 
hand, we  begin  our  diggings.  If  there  appear  to  be 
remains  of  a temple,  or  some  larger  building,  which 
should  be  thoroughly  examined,  we  first  make  pits 
about  one  edge  of  the  site,  and  find  how  far  out  the 
ruins  extend.  Having  settled  that,  a large  trench  is 
dug  along  the  whole  of  one  side,  reaching  down  to  the 
undisturbed  soil  beneath,  and  about  six  or  eight  feet 
wide  at  the  bottom,  all  the  earth  being  heaped  on  the 
outer  edge  of  the  trench.  Then  the  inner  side  is  dug 
away,  and  the  stuff  thrown  up  on  the  outer  side  by  a 


The  art  of  excavating  159 

row  of  men  all  along  the  trench.  Thus  the  trench  is  gra- 
dually swept  across  the  whole  site,  always  taking  from 
one  side,  and  throwing  back  on  the  other.  Each  block 
of  stone  or  piece  of  building  found  is  surveyed,  and 
covered  over  again  if  not  wanted  ; sculptures  or  in- 
scriptions are  either  removed  or  rolled  up  on  to  the 
surface  of  the  stuff  or  remain  exposed  in  pits  left  in 
the  rubbish.  Thus  the  earth  does  not  cover  over  and 
encumber  the  surrounding  ground,  which  may  very 
likely  need  to  be  excavated  in  its  turn  ; the  stuff 
is  removed  a minimum  distance,  which  means  occu- 
pying a minimum  of  time  and  cost ; and  the  site  is 
covered  over  again,  to  preserve  from  the  weather  and 
from  plunderers  any  foundations  or  masonry  that  may 
remain.  Every  ounce  of  earth  is  thus  examined,  and 
all  it  contains  is  discovered.  Town  ruins  may  be 
treated  in  the  same  way  ; all  the  chambers  along  one 
side  of  the  town,  or  along  a street,  may  be  cleared  out 
and  measured  ; then  the  next  chambers  inwards  are 
cleared,  and  the  stuff  all  thrown  into  the  first  row  of 
chambers  ; thus  gradually  turning  over  every  scrap  of 
rubbish  without  destroying  a single  wall,  and  leaving 
the  place  as  well  protected  by  its  coat  of  debris  as  it 
was  before  the  work. 

The  most  fatal  difficulty  in  the  way  of  reaching  what 
is  wanted  is  when  an  early  site  has  been  occupied  in 
later  times.  A city  may  have  been  of  the  greatest 
importance,  and  we  may  be  certain  that  beneath  our 
feet  are  priceless  monuments  ; but  if  there  are  twenty 
or  thirty  feet  of  later  rubbish  over  it  all,  the  things 
might  almost  as  well  be  in  the  centre  of  the  earth. 
Tanis  was  the  Hyksos  capital,  but  it  would  cost  tens 


i6o 


TEN  YEARS  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


of  thousands  of  pounds  to  lay  bare  the  Hyksos  level. 
The  town  of  the  twelfth  dynasty  at  Illahun,  on  the 
contrary,  yielded  a harvest  of  small  objects  and 
papyri,  revealing  all  the  products  and  habits  of  that 
remote  time,  at  a cost  of  two  or  three  hundred 
pounds ; simply  because  it  was  unencumbered.  The 
temple  of  Ephesos  cost  sixteen  thousand  pounds,  and 
almost  a life’s  work,  to  discover  it,  owing  to  its  depth 
under  the  surface.  Naukratis  and  Defenneh,  on  the 
contrary,  gave  us  the  remains  of  the  archaic  Greeks, 
merely  for  the  picking  up  and  a little  grubbing,  both 
together  not  costing  a thousand.  It  is  plain  enough 
that  the  main  consideration  is  an  accessible  site. 

An  excellent  rule  in  excavating  is  never  to  dig  any- 
where without  some  definite  aim.  Form  at  least  some 
expectation  of  what  may  be  found  ; and  so  soon  as  the 
general  clue  to  the  arrangement  is  known,  have  clearly 
in  the  mind  what  you  expect  to  find,  and  what  is  the 
purpose  of  every  separate  man’s  work.  One  may  be 
following  the  outside  of  a fortification,  another  trench- 
ing across  it  to  find  its  thickness,  another  sinking  a pit 
inside  it  to  find  the  depth  of  the  soil,  another  clearing 
a room,  or  trenching  to  find  the  limits  of  the  town,  or 
removing  a rubbish  deposit  layer  by  layer.  Unless 
just  beginning  work  on  a very  featureless  site,  the 
aimless  trenching  or  pitting  is  merely  an  excuse  for  a 
lazy  mind.  Far  better  have  some  theory  or  working 
hypothesis,  and  labour  to  prove  it  to  be  either  right 
or  wrong,  than  simply  remain  in  expectancy.  When 
you  know  what  to  look  for,  the  most  trivial  indica- 
tions, which  otherwise  would  seem  to  be  nothing,  be- 
come of  great  importance  and  attract  the  eye.  And 


THE  ART  OF  EXCAVATING 


161 


the  workmen  should  be  encouraged  to  know  what  to 
expect  beneath  the  surface,  as  it  prevents  their  destroy- 
ing the  evidences.  A vertical  junction  a few  inches 
high,  clean  sand  on  one  side  and  earth  on  the  other, 
will  lead  to  tracing  the  whole  plan  of  a destroyed 
temple ; a little  patch  of  sand  in  the  ground  will 
produce  a foundation  deposit  to  your  hands,  and  give 
the  age  of  a building  which  has  vanished  ; a slightly 
darker  soil  in  a trench  will  show  you  the  wall  of  a 
town  which  you  are  seeking ; some  bricks  laid  with 
mud  instead  of  sand  in  a pyramid  will  point  the  way 
to  the  sepulchre.  A beginner  is  vastly  disappointed 
that  some  great  prize  does  not  turn  up  after  a week  or 
two  of  work ; while  all  the  time  he  is  probably  not 
noticing  or  thinking  about  material  for  historical 
results  that  is  lying  before  him  all  the  time.  Perhaps 
in  some  place  nothing  whatever  may  be  found  that 
would  be  worth  sixpence  in  the  antiquity  market ; and 
yet  the  results  from  walls,  and  plans,  and  pottery, 
and  measurements,  may  be  what  historians  have  been 
longing  to  know  about  for  years  before. 

It  need  hardly  be  said  that  the  greatest  care  is 
required  in  making  certain  as  to  exactly  where  things 
are  found.  Workmen  should  never  be  allowed  to 
meddle  with  each  other’s  lots  of  potsherds  or  little 
things  ; and  any  man  mixing  up  things  from  elsewhere 
with  his  own  finds  should  be  dismissed.  Men  should 
be  trained  by  questioning  to  report  where  they  found 
objects,  at  what  level  and  spot  in  their  holes ; and  the 
best  men  may  in  this  way  be  led  up  to  astonishing 
intelligence,  observing  exactly  how  they  find  things, 
and  replacing  them  as  found  to  illustrate  the  matter. 

M 


\6z  TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

In  order  to  encourage  the  men  to  preserve  all  they 
find,  and  to  prevent  their  being  induced  to  secrete 
things  of  value,  they  should  always  be  paid  as  a 
present  the  market  price  of  such  things  at  that  place, 
and  a trifle  for  any  pottery  or  little  scraps  that  may 
be  wanted.  To  do  this  properly  it  is  needful  to  know 
the  local  prices  pretty  closely,  so  as  to  ensure  getting 
everything,  and  on  the  other  hand  not  to  induce  men 
to  foist  things  into  the  work  from  other  places.  Wages 
are  paid  by  measure  wherever  possible,  as  it  avoids  the 
need  of  keeping  the  men  up  to  the  work,  and  is  happier 
for  both  parties.  Some  day-work  intermixed  where 
measurement  is  impossible  will  often  suffice. 

It  would  be  thought  at  first  that  nothing  could  be 
easier  than  to  know  a wall  when  you  see  it.  Yet  both 
in  Egypt  and  Palestine  the  discrimination  of  mud-brick 
walls  from  the  surrounding  soil  and  rubbish  in  which 
they  are  buried,  is  one  of  the  most  tedious  and  per- 
plexing tasks.  To  settle  what  is  a wall  and  what  is 
washed  mud,  and  to  find  the  limits  and  clear  the  face  of 
the  wall,  is  often  a matter  of  half-an-hour’s  examination. 
The  two  opposite  ways  of  working  are  by  trenching 
sections  through  the  wall,  or  by  clearing  the  faces  of  it. 
The  first  is  clumsy,  but  is  needful  sometimes,  espe- 
cially if  the  wall  is  much  like  the  soil,  and  the  workman 
cannot  be  trusted  ; as,  if  the  face  is  cleared,  the  whole 
outside  may  be  cut  away  without  leaving  any  trace. 
The  light  on  the  surface  is  all-important,  as  any 
shadows  or  oblique  lights  mask  the  differences  of  the 
bricks  ; either  all  in  sunshine,  or  better,  all  in  shade,  is 
needful  to  see  the  bricks.  A distant  general  view  will 
often  show  differences  of  tint  in  the  courses,  yellow,  red, 


THE  ART  OF  EXCAVATING  163 

brown,  grey,  or  black,  which  prove  the  mass  to  have 
been  brickwork.  The  most  decisive  test  is  the  differ- 
ence at  a vertical  joint  between  bricks,  as  that  cannot 
be  simulated  by  natural  beds  of  washed  earth,  as 
courses  sometimes  are.  The  lines  of  mud  mortar  are 
also  different  in  colour  to  the  bricks,  and  show  out  the 
courses.  But  yet  all  the  question  of  joints  is  deceptive 
sometimes,  owing  to  fallen  bricks  lying  flat,  and  even 
fallen  lumps  of  wall.  In  order  to  see  the  surface  it 
must  be  fresh  cut,  or  better,  fresh  broken  by  flaking  it 
with  picking  at  the  face ; by  chopping  successively 
back  and  back,  each  cut  flakes  away  the  mark  of  the 
previous  blow,  and  so  leaves  a clean  fractured  surface 
all  over.  It  must  be  remembered  that  bricks  are  often 
bent  out  of  form  by  solid  flow  of  the  wall  under  great 
pressure,  so  that  they  may  be  distorted  almost  like  a 
glacial  deposit.  In  cleaning  down  the  face  of  a wall  it 
may  often  be  traced  by  its  hardness,  but  this  is  not  a 
test  to  be  left  to  workmen,  or  they  may  cut  away  at 
random  ; a very  good  plan  is  to  let  the  man  trench 
along  a few  inches  outside  of  the  face  of  the  wall,  and 
then  cut  down  the  remaining  coat  of  rubbish  oneself, 
to  bare  the  face.  Though  pottery,  stones,  &c.,  often 
serve  to  show  what  is  accumulated  soil,  yet  they  are 
found  in  brick  sometimes,  and  must  not  be  relied  on 
entirely.  The  texture  of  the  soil  is  important,  as  in 
accumulations  all  long  bodies,  bits  of  straw,  &c.,  lie 
flat ; whereas  in  brick  they  are  mixed  in  all  directions. 
Also  washed-down  earth  almost  always  shows  worm 
casts  in  it.  Often  a wall,  if  in  low  wet  soil,  will  show 
out  distinctly  when  the  cut  surface  has  dried,  as  cracks 
will  form  more  readily  along  the  joints.  In  many 

M 2 


164  TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

cases,  however,  all  of  these  tests  hardly  serve  to 
unravel  the  puzzle  ; especially  where  there  are  succes- 
sive walls  superposed,  and  only  a small  height  of  any 
one  to  examine.  To  trace  out  the  position  of  ancient 
walls  is,  however,  one  of  the  first  requisites  in  such 
work  ; not  only  do  we  recover  the  plan  of  the  town  and 
its  buildings,  but  we  are  led  thus  to  recognize  what 
may  be  the  most  important  sites  for  special  excavation. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  questions  always  is  to  know 
what  may  be  safely  thrown  away.  Most  trivial  things 
may  be  of  value,  as  g'ving  a clue  to  something  else. 
Generally  it  is  better  to  keep  some  examples  of  every- 
thing. No  matter  how  broken  the  potsherds  may  be, 
keep  one  of  each  kind  and  form,  replacing  it  by  more 
complete  examples  as  the  work  goes  on.  Thus  the 
collection  that  is  kept  is  always  in  process  of  weeding. 
It  need  hardly  be  said  that  every  subject  should  be 
attended  to  ; the  excavator's  business  is  not  to  study 
his  own  speciality  only,  but  to  collect  as  much  material 
as  possible  for  the  use  of  other  students.  To  neglect 
the  subjects  that  interest  him  less  is  not  only  a waste  of 
his  opportunities,  but  a waste  of  such  archaeological 
material  as  may  never  be  equalled  again.  History, 
inscriptions,  tools  ornaments,  pottery,  technical  works, 
weights,  sources  of  imported  stones,  ethnology,  botany, 
colours,  and  any  other  unexpected  subject  that  may 
turn  up,  must  all  have  a due  share  of  attention. 
And  keeping  up  the  record  of  where  everything  has 
been  found,  and  all  the  information  that  will  after- 
wards be  needed,  about  the  objects  and  the  discoveries, 
the  measurements  and  details  for  publication,  is  a 
serious  part  of  the  work. 


THE  ART  OF  EXCAVATING 


165 


However  much  it  may  be  desired  to  preserve  some 
things,  they  almost  defy  the  excavator’s  care.  It  is  a 
simple  affair  to  get  an  antiquity  safe  out  of  the  ground, 
but  then  begin  its  perils  of  destruction,  and  unless 
carefully  attended  to,  it  may  slowly  perish  in  a few 
days  or  weeks.  The  first  great  trouble  is  salt  ; it 
scales  the  face  of  stones,  or  makes  them  drop  off  in 
powder ; it  destroys  the  surface  of  pottery  ; it  eats 
away  metal.  In  all  cases  where  salt  exists  it  is 
imperative  to  soak  the  objects  in  two  or  three  changes 
of  water,  for  hours  or  days,  according  to  the  thick- 
ness. I have  done  this  even  with  rotten  wood,  and 
with  paper  squeezes.  Another  source  of  trouble  is 
the  rotting  of  organic  materials,  wood,  string,  leather, 
cloth,  &c.  For  all  such  tilings  the  best  treatment 
is  a bath  of  melted  wax.  But  innumerable  ques- 
tions arise  as  work  goes  on,  which  can  only  be 
settled  according  to  their  circumstances  : still,  the 
soaking  bath  and  the  wax  pot  are  the  main  pre- 
servatives. 

The  excavator  should  always  be  ready  to  take 
squeezes  or  photographs  at  once  when  required,  and 
it  is  the  best  rule  always  to  copy  every  inscription  as 
soon  as  it  is  seen.  If  only  an  hour  had  been  spent  on 
the  stele  of  Mesha,  how  much  less  should  we  have  to 
regret ! There  is  always  the  chance  of  accidents,  and 
no  risks  should  be  run  with  inscribed  materials.  Even 
when  the  owner  will  not  allow  a copy  to  be  made,  the 
most  needful  points  may  be  committed  to  memory, 
and  written  down  as  soon  as  possible,  even  under 
guise  of  making  notes  on  other  subjects.  Another 
matter  in  which  it  is  essential  that  an  excavator 


1 66  TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

should  be  proficient,  is  surveying  and  levelling:  in 
order  to  understand  a place  and  direct  the  work,  in 
order  to  preserve  a record  of  what  is  done  and  make  it 
intelligible  to  others,  a survey  is  always  needed,  and 
generally  levelling  as  well. 

Lastly,  what  most  persons  never  think  of,  a great 
deal  of  time  and  attention  is  required  for  safely  pack- 
ing a collection.  This  part  of  the  business  generally 
takes  about  a fifth  of  the  time  of  the  excavations  ; and 
much  care  and  arrangement  has  to  be  bestowed  on 
the  security  of  heavy  stones,  or  pottery,  or  fragile 
stucco,  or  glass,  for  a long  journey  of  railways  and 
shipping.  Packing  with  pads,  with  clothes,  with 
chopped  straw,  or  with  reeds,  hay,  or  straw,  is  more 
or  less  suitable  in  differeqt  instances.  Finding  things 
is  but  sorry  work  if  you  cannot  preserve  them  and 
transport  them  safely.  Most  people  think  of  exca- 
vating as  a pleasing  sort  of  holiday  amusement  ; just 
walking  about  a place  and  seeing  things  found  : but 
it  takes  about  as  much  care  and  management  as  any 
other  business,  and  needs  perhaps  more  miscellaneous 
information  than  most  other  affairs. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


THE  FELLAH. 

It  is  always  difficult  to  realise  the  state  of  mind  of 
another  person,  even  of  one  who  is  perhaps  an  equal 
in  education,  and  who  has  been  reared  amid  the  same 
ideas  and  surroundings  as  one’s  own  ; but  it  is  impos- 
sible to  really  take  the  same  standpoint  as  one  of 
another  race,  another  education,  and  another  standard 
of  duty  and  of  morals.  We  cannot,  therefore,  see  the 
world  as  a fellah  sees  it ; and  I believe  this  the  more 
readily  because  after  living  the  most  part  of  ten  years 
among  the  fellahin,  and  being  accused  of  having  gone 
some  way  toward  them,  I yet  feel  the  gulf  between 
their  nature  and  my  own  as  impassable  as  ever.  One 
measuring-line  may  perhaps  give  some  slight  idea  of 
their  position.  The  resemblances  between  Egypt  of 
the  present  and  mediaeval  England  are  enough  to 
help  our  feelings  in  the  matter.  There  is  the  same 
prevalence  of  the  power  of  the  great  man  of  the  vil- 
lage; the  same  rough-and-ready  justice  administered 
by  him ; the  same  lack  of  intercommunication,  the 
same  suspicion  of  strangers : the  absence  of  roads, 
and  use  of  pack  animals,  is  alike  ; the  lack  of  shops  in 
all  but  large  towns,  and  the  great  importance  of  the 


i68 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


weekly  markets  in  each  village,  is  similar  again ; and 
the  mental  state  of  the  people  seems  to  be  somewhat 
akin  to  that  of  our  ancestors. 

The  man  who  can  read  and  write  is  the  rare  excep- 
tion in  the  country ; perhaps  two  per  cent,  of  the 
fellahin  men  can  do  so,  but  probably  not  one  woman 
in  ten  thousand.  Of  education  there  is  but  very  little, 
for  the  great  majority  of  the  people ; in  villages  the 
children  of  the  fellah  seldom  go  to  school,  and  in 
large  towns  the  scholars  are  but  a minority  of  the 
boys,  while  the  girls  are  nowhere.  In  accounts  they 
have  some  sharpness,  but  their  reckoning  would  amuse 


1 13.  Houses  in  the  Delta,  with  Rain-proof  Domes. 


an  infant  scholar  in  England.  I overheard  some  quick 
lads,  of  about  sixteen,  anxiously  discussing  what  a 
man’s  wages  were  at  £5  a month  : they  pretty  soon 
saw  that  it  was  £1,  or  100  piastres,  every  ten  days, 
but  how  many  piastres  a day  that  was  puzzled  them 
all.  One  fellow  proposed  eleven  ; he  was  contradicted 
by  another  who  said  twelve;  then  another  tried  9^  ; 
and  at  last,  as  a great  discovery,  one  sagely  reminded 
them  all  that  ten  tens  made  a hundred,  and  so  a 
hundred  piastres  in  ten  days  must  be  ten  piastres  a 
day.  Egypt  would  almost  satisfy  Jack  Cade. 

The  gross  superstition,  and  the  innumerable  local 


THE  FELLAH 


169 


saints,  remind  us  again  of  mediaeval  times.  Many — 
perhaps  most — of  the  people  wear  charms,  written  on 
paper,  and  sewn  up  in  leather ; they  are  worn  around 
the  neck,  on  the  purse  or  pouch,  or  on  the  top  of  the 
cap.  Cattle  are  also  sometimes  protected  by  them. 
It  is  common  also  for  a man  passing  a saint’s  tomb  to 
repeat  a prayer  in  a low  mumble,  even  without  stop- 
ping ; while  many  go  into  the  tomb-chamber  to  pray. 
These  saints  are  anybody  who  has  died  in  an  odour  of 
sanctity,  probably  within  this  century  or  the  last — for 
few,  I imagine,  have  a perennial  reputation.  Some  of 
the  great  saints  are  commonly  appealed  to  in  the 
slightest  emergency,  such  as  lifting  a weight  or  climb- 
ing an  obstacle ; and  constant  appeals  are  made  to 
Ya  Said,  ya  Bedawi,  ya  Tantawi  (‘  O Said,  O 
Bedawi,  O man  ofTantah’)  or  Ya  sitteh  Zenab  (‘  O 
lady  Zenab,’  the  wife  of  the  prophet) ; while  a Copt, 
if  his  legs  are  stiff  in  rising  from  the  ground,  will  call 
out,  Ya  adrah  Mariam  (‘  O virgin  Mary  ’).  The 
most  absurd  tales  are  readily  believed,  and  there  is 
little  or  no  discrimination  or  criticism  applied  to  them. 
At  one  village  there  lies  a large  number  of  rough 
stones  half  hidden  in  the  ground,  scattered  over 
an  acre  or  so ; probably  old  remnants  of  building 
material,  brought  a century  or  two  ago  from  the  hills. 
A great  festival  of  a local  saint  is  held  at  the  village 
yearly,  and  an  intelligent  fellow  gravely  told  me  that 
the  saint  had  been  murdered  there  with  all  his 
followers,  of  whom  a thousand  were  buried  under  each 
of  the  stones.  The  total  number,  or  the  question  of 
burying  a thousand  men  in  a few  square  yards,  did 
not  seem  to  matter.  I have  also  heard  the  old  tale 


170  TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

of  the  man  who  stole  a sheep  and  ate  it : when 
questioned,  he  denied  the  theft,  whereat  the  sheep 
bleated  in  his  stomach.  A station-master,  who  had 
been  educated  in  England,  told  me  in  English,  in  all 
sincerity,  a tale  about  a Copt  he  knew,  who  got  great 
treasures  from  a hall  full  of  gold  in  an  ancient  mound. 
The  door  of  the  place  only  opened  for  five  minutes 
once  a week,  on  Friday  noon,  just  when  all  true 
believers  are  at  mosque  ; then  the  Copt  went  and  took 


1 1 4.  Houses  in  Middle  Egypt. 


all  the  gold  he  could  carry,  before  the  door  shut.  One 
day,  tarrying,  the  door  began  to  shut  and  wounded  his 
heel  before  he  could  escape. 

While  naming  the  local  festivals  above,  it  may  be 
noted  that  they  generally  take  place  around  a tall  pole 
fixed  in  some  open  space  by  the  village.  Some  poles 
are  stout  masts  thirty  or  forty  feet  high  : around  this 
central  point  is  the  celebration  of  the  molid  or  birth- 
days of  the  village  saint.  Some  molids  are  fairs  for  the 


THE  FELLAH 


171 

whole  district,  lasting  nine  days  or  even  more,  and 
attended  by  performers,  shows,  jugglers,  sweet-sellers, 
and  as  much  riff-raff  as  any  English  fair. 

Many  visitors  to  Egypt  see  the  dancing  and  howling 
derwishes,  but  few  know  of  the  common  and  less 
obtrusive  orgies  of  the  same  kind  in  the  villages. 
They  are  connected  strictly  with  a devotional  senti- 
ment : a man  who  has  just  joined  in  such  excitement 
will  tell  you  that  it  is  ‘good  to  see  Allah’  in  that 
way — much  like  the  fervid  and  maddening  religious 
intoxication  which  yet  finds  a place  in  English  civil- 
ization. These  derwish  parties  are  formed  from  a 
few  men  and  boys — perhaps  a dozen  or  twenty — who 
happen  to  live  as  neighbours:  they  are  almost  always 
held  in  moonlight,  generally  near  full  moon,  a point 
which  may  connect  them  with  some  pre-Islamite 
moon-worship  ; and  though  often  without  any  cause 
but  idleness,  yet  I have  noticed  them  being  held  after 
a death  in  a village  where  they  do  not  occur  other- 
wise. A professed  derwish  often  leads  the  party,  but 
that  is  not  essential.  The  people  all  stand  in  a circle, 
and  begin  repeating  Al-lah  with  a very  strong  accent 
on  the  latter  syllable  ; bowing  down  the  head  and 
body  at  the  former,  and  raising  it  at  the  latter.  This 
is  done  all  in  unison,  and  slowly  at  first  ; gradually 
the  rate  quickens,  the  accent  is  stronger,  and  becomes 
more  of  an  explosive  howl,  sounding  afar  off  like  an 
engine  ; the  excitement  is  wilder,  and  hideously  wild, 
until  a horrid  creeping  comes  over  you  as  you  listen, 
and  you  feel  that  in  such  a state  there  is  no  answering 
for  what  may  be  done.  Incipient  madness  of  the 
intoxication  of  excitement  seems  poured  out  upon 


172 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


them  all, when  at  last  they  break  down  from  exhaustion ; 
or  perhaps  one  or  other,  completely  mad  for  the  time, 
rushes  off  into  the  desert,  and  is  followed,  for  fear  he 
may  injure  himself.  After  a pause,  some  other  phrase 
is  started,  and  the  same  round  is  gone  through.  After 
about  half  an  hour  of  this  they  separate  with  a great 
sense  of  devotional  virtue,  and  wearied  with  excitement. 

Some  curious  observances  are  connected  with  acci- 
dental deaths.  Fires  of  straw  are  lighted  one  month 
after  the  death,  around  the  ground  where  the  body 


has  lain  ; and  where  blood  has  been  shed  iron  nails 
are  driven  into  the  ground,  and  a mixture  of  lentils, 
salt,  &c.,  is  poured  out.  These  look  like  offerings  to 
appease  spirits,  and  the  fires  seem  as  if  to  drive  away 
evil  influences.  Funeral  offerings  are  still  placed  in 
the  tombs  for  the  sustenance  of  the  dead,  just  as  they 
were  thousands  of  years  ago. 

The  very  hazy  notions  about  all  foreign  places,  and 
the  blankness  of  ignorance  concerning  surrounding 
Nature,  is  a strong  reminder  of  mediaeval  times.  To 
say  that  the  earth  is  round  is  flat  heresy  in  Egypt ; 


THE  FELLAH 


173 


and  even  the  ulema  of  Cairo — learned  in  all  the 
wisdom  of  Islam — walked  out  of  the  government 
examination  room  to  which  they  had  been  invited 
when  a pupil  was  examined  in  geography.  To  listen 
to  a description  of  a round  world  was  too  atrocious  an 
insult  to  them.  The  dim  ideas  of  Europe — some  far- 
off  heathenish  land  of  infidels — and  the  questions  as  to 
how  many  Muslims  there  are  in  our  towns  and  villages, 
show  the  peasant,  even  when  intelligent,  to  be  much 
on  a level  with  the  audience  of  Sir  John  Mandeville. 
It  is  no  wonder  that  in  such  ignorance  there  is  a 
mighty  fanaticism.  Islam  is  all  in  all  to  the  fellah  : 
the  unbelievers  he  looks  on  as  a miserable  minority ; 
and  it  is  only  the  unpleasant  fact  that  they  cannot  be 
crushed  at  present  that  prevents  his  crushing  them, 
and  asserting  the  supremacy  of  Islam.  A clever  Arab 
once  remarked  to  me  concerning  a department  which 
was  mismanaged  by  European  direction,  ‘ How  much 
better  it  would  be  to  have  an  Arab  over  it ! ’ But  on 
my  asking  where  he  could  find  a native  whose  corrup- 
tion would  not  be  far  worse  than  the  present  rule,  he 
could  but  reluctantly  give  in.  This  fanatical  feeling  of 
dislike  to  the  Nusrani,  or  Nazarene,  was  the  mainstay 
of  Arabi’s  revolt ; and  the  very  existence  of  such  a 
feeling  shows  how  dangerous  it  might  become  if  fed 
on  success.  The  children  unintentionally  reveal  what 
is  the  tone  and  talk  of  the  households  in  private  ; they 
constantly  greet  the  European  with  howls  of  Ya  Nus- 
rani (•  O Nazarene5),  the  full  force  of  which  title  is 
felt  when  your  donkey-boy  urges  on  his  beast  by 
calling  it,  ‘ Son  of  a dog  ! son  of  a pig ! son  of  a 
Nazarene  ! ’ Any  abuse  will  do  to  howl  at  the  infidel, 


1 74  TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

and  I have  been  for  months  shouted  at  across  every 
field  as  Ya  khawaga  mafeles!  (‘  0 bankrupt  foreigner’), 
because  I preferred  walking  to  the  slow  jolt  of  a 
donkey.  The  fact  that  dozens  of  the  villagers  were 
depending  on  me  for  good  pay  all  the  time  did  not 
seem  to  weigh  in  the  youthful  mind,  compared  with 
the  pleasure  of  finding  a handy  insult.  This  temper, 
if  not  held  down,  might  easily  rise  in  the  arrogance  of 
its  ignorance  to  such  a height  as  to  need  a much 
sharper  lesson  than  it  has  ever  received.  That  a 
massacre  of  the  Coptic  Christians  was  fully  antici- 
pated by  them  when  Arabi  drove  out  the  foreigners, 
is  a well-known  matter  of  history,  which  should  not 
be  lightly  forgotten. 

This  fanaticism  is  linked  with  an  unreasoning 
ferocity  of  punishment.  I have  seen  a coachman 
suddenly  seize  on  a street-boy,  and,  for  some  word 
or  gesture,  lash  him  on  the  bare  legs  with  the  whip 
again  and  again  with  all  his  might.  Even  a par- 
ticularly good-natured  and  pleasant  native  remarked 
with  gusto  how  good  it  would  be  to  take  a certain 
family  who  were  of  thievish  habits,  and  pour  petroleum 
over  them — from  the  old  woman  to  the  baby — and 
so  burn  them  all  up  alive : he  gloated  over  the 
throughness  of  the  undertaking,  while  all  the  time 
he  was  cheating  his  own  employer.  It  is  a pity  for 
their  sakes  that  they  do  not  believe  in  witchcraft,  the 
whole  village  would  so  much  enjoy  the  festivity  of 
doing  a ducking,  in  the  fashion  of  our  ancestors. 

Akin  to  this  fanaticism  is  the  ruling  view  of 
everything  as  kismet , the  allotted  fate.  Perhaps  no 
abstraction  is  so  deleterious  to  a character  as  this ; 


THE  FELLAH 


175 


as  a man  always  can  thus  shut  his  eyes  to  the  con- 
sequences of  his  own  actions,  and  refuse  to  learn  by 
experience.  I never  yet  found  a fellah  who  confessed 
to  doing  wrong,  or  to  being  sorry  for  what  he  had 
done.  He  may  sometimes  stand  and  look  aghast 
at  the  consequences  of  his  own  carelessness ; but  he 
will  do  no  more,  and  no  less,  if  the  damage  is  the 
fault  of  someone  else.  He  scarcely  can,  in  fact,  express 
what  one  of  ourselves  would  feel,  as  there  is  no  word 
for  repentance  in  his  vocabulary,  except  ‘ good  ’ ; nor 
is  there  any  word  for  sorrow,  except  ‘ angry  ’ or 
‘ annoyed.’  The  very  sentiment  of  remorse  is  so 
unknown  that  there  are  no  means  of  expressing  it 
in  any  form.  The  constant  way  of  appeasing  an 
injured  party  is  for  the  offender  to  assure  him  emphat- 
ically that  it  is  of  no  consequence  ( maalesh ) ; and 
the  more  often  he  thus  asserts  that  he  has  not  done 
the  other  a wrong,  the  more  he  considers  he  clears 
himself  of  it,  until  after  sufficient  of  this  lying  he  goes 
away  with  a sense  of  virtue.  If  in  consequence  of 
some  very  plain  fault  a man  is  punished  by  dismissal 
or  otherwise,  expressly  pointing  out  to  him  the  causes 
of  his  punishment,  he  will  sullenly  shrug  his  shoulders 
and  say  to  his  companions,  Kismet ; it  is  fated  he  is 
not  to  w'ork.  That  any  blame  attaches  to  him  for  his 
trouble  seems  not  to  be  dangable  into  him  by  any  means. 
This  lack  of  belief  in  consequences  is  also  seen  in  the 
extreme  carelessness  often  shown.  After  a harvest,  a 
large  quantity  of  grain  had  been  stored  in  a room  beside 
a village,  covered  with  the  most  inflammable  of  roofing 
— durra  straw : then,  in  order  to  toast  some  bread,  a 
blazing  fire  was  lighted  in  the  low  room,  and  allowed  to 


176 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


flame  up  to  the  straw  overhead.  Of  course  it  was  soon 
all  in  flames,  and  the  whole  of  a large  proprietor’s  har- 
vest was  destroyed.  Even  when  it  was  blazing,  within  a 
hundred  feet  of  the  canal,  the  only  attempt  to  fetch 
water  was  by  two  or  three  women  slowly  filling  their 
great  pitchers  and  carrying  them  up  on  their  heads  as 
usual ; no  notion  of  a chain-gang  ever  seemed  to  occur 
to  them.  The  same  lack  of  any  co-operation  is  seen 
when  robbers  are  about.  I asked  why,  when  a house 
was  attacked  by  thieves,  the  other  villagers  did  not  all 
come  out  and  seize  the  men,  being  ten  or  twenty  to 
one.  The  reply  was,  ‘When  anyone  hears  another 
house  being  robbed,  he  keeps  as  quiet  as  possible,  and 
does  nothing,  for  fear  of  attracting  the  thieves  to  his 
own  house.’ 

This  belief  in  kismet , and  lack  of  co-operation,  tells 
favourably  in  one  way — the  fellah  is  not  revengeful. 
No  matter  whether  he  deserves  what  ill  befalls  him, 
or  is  an  innocent  sufferer,  he  never  goes  about  for 
simple  vengeance,  but  yields,  and  is  ready  to  act  as  if 
no  grudge  or  ill-feeling  rested  in  his  mind.  What  might 
be  the  case  in  an  affront  to  their  religion  or  family  I 
would  not  say;  but  in  all  minor  matters  the  fellah 
may  be  dealt  with  regardless  of  an  idea  of  revenge. 

The  cardinal  principle  to  remember  in  dealing  with 
Egyptians  is  that  they  have  no  forbearance,  and  know 
no  middle  course.  The  notion  of  means  exactly 
meeting  an  end,  is  outside  of  the  fellah’s  sense.  If 
he  is  careless  about  a danger,  he  is  so  careless  in 
many  cases  as  to  be  killed  ; if  he  thinks  about  it,  he  is 
so  afraid  that  he  will  not  face  it  at  all.  If  he  has  to 
make  anything  secure,  no  amount  of  surplus  security 


THE  FELLAH 


177 


seems  too  great.  If  he  knows  that  you  have  power,  he 
cannot  be  too  submissive,  and  insists  on  kissing  your 
hand,  or  at  the  least  so  honouring  the  aroma  of  it 
where  it  has  touched  his  own.  But  if  he  has  power 
himself,  he  gets  all  he  can  out  of  it ; and  the  grasping 
and  overbearing  nature  of  the  village  shekh  is  too 
generally  well  known  to  those  under  him.  Nothing 
seems  to  have  astonished  and  disgusted  Stanley  more 
than  the  scheming  of  the  Egyptian  soldiers,  whom  he 
expected  to  follow  him,  in  retreating.  Yet  the  whole 
affair  was  characteristically  Egyptian : fleeing  from 
the  Mahdists  ; only  too  glad  to  find  anyone  so  foolish 
in  their  eyes  as  to  be  troubled  about  them  ; and  then 
clumsily  plotting — without  any  regard  to  time — for 
making  the  best  profit  they  could  out  of  the  affair, 
by  seizing  whatever  seemed  to  have  come  into  their 
power.  It  would  have  been  nothing  to  them  to  make 
away  with  people  who  were  so  indiscreet  as  to  put 
ammunition  within  their  grasp.  The  scheme  seems 
to  be  the  natural  course  of  things  to  anyone  who  has 
watched  the  ways  of  Egypt.  Peremptory  orders  are 
understood  ; and  the  more  peremptorily  they  are  en- 
forced the  more  cheerfully  they  are  obeyed,  though 
roughness  or  harshness  is  seldom  necessary : but  if 
you  do  not  rule,  you  must  submit  to  be  ruled.  And 
the  fellah  has  a positive  dislike  to  having  a choice  of 
action  left  to  him.  In  matters  indifferent  to  me,  I 
often  tell  them  to  do  what  they  please  ; and  that 
generally  ends  in  their  helplessly  doing  nothing, 
especially  if  they  need  to  co-operate.  At  last,  seeing 
their  trouble,  I give  a precise  order,  and  every  one  at 
once  obeys  it  with  thankfulness. 

N 


178  TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

From  this  it  follows  that  the  fellah  is  one  of  the 
most  easily  managed  people  in  the  world.  When  once 
he  knows  who  is  master,  there  is  little  or  no  trouble. 
And  if  you  can  pick  and  choose  your  men,  and  keep 
them  well  in  hand,  instantly  dismissing  any  who  may 
disobey,  it  would  be  impossible  to  find  a more  cheerful, 
pleasant,  well-disposed,  and  kindly  set  of  fellows.  The 
only  danger  is  that  they  may  perceive  too  much  of  your 
confidence  in  them.  All  the  best  men  I have  had 
have  gone  lamentably  to  the  bad  when  they  found 
that  they  were  at  all  trusted.  The  temptation  of 
having  any  credit  of  character  is  too  great  for  them  ; 
they  hasten  to  commute  it  for  instant  advantage, 
as  soon  as  they  see  that  there  is  anything  to  be  made 
of  it.  The  goose  that  lays  golden  eggs  has  a short 
and  perilous  life  in  Egypt. 

That  there  is  scarcely  any  sense  of  honour  as  to 
truthfulness  need  hardly  be  remarked.  The  idea  of 
truth  for  its  own  sake  does  not  weigh  appreciably 
against  either  present  advantage  or  serving  the 
interest  of  another.  The  most  respectable  fellahin 
I have  known  would  lie  readily  and  unlimitedly,  if 
they  thought  it  beneficial.  One  very  good  fellow 
came  to  tell  me  one  day  what  he  had  heard,  prefacing 
it  by  saying  how  he  had  not  two  minutes  before 
obtained  the  information  by  solemnly  promising  never 
to  tell  me  about  it.  That  he  avowed  the  most  un- 
blushing and  deliberate  lying  never  seemed  to  occur 
to  his  mind  as  anything  noticeable,  but  rather  a 
virtuous  attention  to  my  interests.  Another  superior 
fellow  lost  some  letters,  which  were  entrusted  to  him 
to  post : when  he  came  back  he  mentioned  the  loss 


THE  FELLAH 


179 


without  any  regret,  and  immediately  went  on  to  praise 
himself  for  the  great  virtue  he  had  shown  in  acknow- 
ledging it,  and  the  elevation  of  his  moral  standpoint 
above  the  sinners  around  him.  It  was,  perhaps,  a 
triumph  of  candour  for  an  Egyptian. 

From  all  that  we  have  just  noticed  it  will  be  plain 
that  Egypt  is  a land  of  bribery.  Every  person  who 
wants  anything  pays  for  it ; time,  attention,  favour, 
facilities,  screening,  and  escaping,  all  have  their  price. 
And  it  is  the  length  of  this  price  that  is  the  deterrent 
from  crime,  and  the  dread  of  those  who  get  into  trouble 
over  any  affair.  I reported  a case  of  a villager  throw- 
ing a dead  buffalo  into  the  canal.  A policeman  visited 
the  shekh  to  enquire ; a sovereign  changed  hands, 
and  he  returned  stating  that  it  was  all  a mistake,  and 
that  no  dead  buffalo  ever  existed  there.  But  a few 
weeks  later  another  policeman  in  search  of  prey  rode 
round ; and,  finding  a dead  dog,  pocketed  a dollar 
for  his  acuteness.  And  the  policeman  is  the  fellah 
in  trousers,  armed,  and  in  authority.  A good  false 
accusation  will  sometimes  do,  and  is  even  occasionally 
worked  on  a wholesale  scale  for  small  bribes.  Briefly, 
it  may  be  stated  that  the  working  of  petty  jurisdiction 
is,  that  the  law  lays  down  what  are  offences,  and  attaches 
certain  penalties  to  them;  these  penalties,  then,  roughly 
are  the  maximum  limits  to  which  the  police  can  reward 
themselves  by  the  discovery  of  such  offences.  The 
system  works  all  right  in  the  long  run,  as  welt  as  any 
system  could  in  so  corrupt  a country  : it  is  part  pay- 
ment by  results  to  the  police,  with  a minimum  daily 
wage  secured  to  them,  and  the  pickings  in  proportion 
to  their  acuteness.  Of  course  all  this  is  profanity  to  the 

N 2 


180  TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

ears  of  High  Officials,  who  never  have  a chance  of 
hearing  the  quiet  doings  in  the  villages.  The  European 
dignitaries,  and  many  of  the  natives  also,  duly  and 
diligently  administer  justice  when  an  affair  comes  to 
their  ears;'  but  the  little  minor  assaults  and  thefts 
and  squabbles  are  adjusted  on  a rougher  and  readier 
system,  which  had  better  be  left  alone  if  it  cannot  be 
improved  away  altogether. 

The  barrier  which  exists  between  the  fellah  and 
the  European  official  is  almost  insurmountable.  Not 
many  officials  visit  the  country  districts  at  all;  when 
they  do  they  stop  at  the  shekhs’  houses,  and  are  always 
attended  by  servants,  before  whom  no  man  would 
speak  if  he  could  avoid  it,  as  they  would  talk  about 
him  to  the  natives  in  the  offices.  Then  the  fellah  is 
timid,  dreads  men  who  go  about  on  prancing  horses, 
and  wear  riding-boots  and  spurs — all  that  means 
police  and  terrorism  to  him.  Unless  therefore  there 
is  something  very  seriously  amiss,  the  fellah  in  general 
will  not  fly  to  the  European  official,  on  the  rare 
occasion  when  he  sees  him  in  the  distance,  and  get 
himself  into  the  fire  by  trying  to  put  someone  else 
into  the  frying-pan.  If  anyone  wanted  to  learn  what 
was  going  on,  and  what  was  the  state  of  affairs,  let 
him  go  on  foot  occasionally  and  tramp  through  some 
villages,  chat  to  the  people  by  the  way,  avoid  the 
shekhs  like  poison ; and,  while  not  at  all  disguising 
who  he  was  in  conversation,  move  about  in  as  different 
a manner  to  the  ordinary  official  as  he  possibly  can. 
Some  wiseacres  have  even  said,  ‘Well,  let  them  petition 
if  there  is  anything  amiss.’  Petition,  indeed!  from 
people  who  cannot  write,  and  have  no  knowledge 


THE  FELLAH 


181 


in  general  of  who  is  the  proper  official  to  appeal  to, 
or  where  he  is  ! If  they  go  to  one  of  the  clerks  at  the 
wayside — where  they  sit  about  the  office  doors, — he 
will  at  once  inform  the  natives  in  the  very  office  which 
may  be  in  fault : if  they  go  to  the  village  scribe,  he 
is  generally  a right-hand  man  of  the  shekh,  who  may 
be  the  very  defendant  in  question.  No ! European 
administration,  except  in  important  or  flagrant  cases, 
scarcely  touches  the  life  of  the  fellah  directly. 

When  I first  met  the  fellah,  I had  always  impressed 
upon  me  by  an  old  Arab  that  no  one  ever  did  any- 
thing rightly  unless  they  were  heartily  afraid  ; and 
though  this  may  be  a harsh  way  to  state  it,  the  fact 
is  true  at  bottom.  There  is  no  need  to  terrorise  or  to 
bully,  and  with  most  Egyptians  perfect  suavity  is  the 
best  course  ; but  if  a man  transgresses  in  any  way  he 
must  be  met  by  sternness,  and  emphatically  put  into 
his  right  place.  One  of  the  most  effective  of  minor 
rebukes  is  to  raise  a laugh  at  the  transgressor  among 
the  bystanders  : to  make  a man’s  doings  ridiculous 
to  his  neighbours  crushes  him  more  than  any  expos- 
tulations. The  fellah  has  a good  sense  of  the  ludi- 
crous, though  he  very  seldom  originates  a joke.  I 
have  known  little  comparisons  or  nicknames  that  I 
have  given,  taken  up  all  round  by  the  people  with  a 
relish,  and  be  repeated  sometimes  for  days  afterwards. 
Nothing  smoothes  matters  more  than  getting  them 
into  a cheerful  mood  ; and  I have  often  watched  the 
faces  when  a discussion  or  difference  has  occurred,  and 
by  just  throwing  in  a remark  when  a passing  smile 
appeared,  to  bring  it  out  into  a laugh,  the  scale  has 
been  turned  and  business  settled.  The  native  in 


J 8a  TEN  YEARS'  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

general  squabbles  over  a difference  with  his  fellows, 
shouts,  and  insists,  shows  fight,  seizes  the  garments  of 
his  opponent,  and  threatens  to  tear  them  ; all  for,  per- 
haps, a pennyworth  of  advantage  one  way  or  other. 
They  think  equally  that  persistent  worrying  will  wear 
out  the  determination  of  the  European  ; and,  until 
they  learn  by  long  experience,  they  will  try  that 
method.  I have  known  a shekh  stand  facing  me  for 
over  half  an  hour  persisting  that  I should  employ 
certain  men  to  work  for  me  ; and,  though  my  refusals 
increased  in  strength,  it  was  not  until  he  was  wearied 
out  that  he  ceased  : it  is  a simple  battle  of  endurance 
in  such  cases.  He  knew  that  his  position  would 
prevent  direct  personal  ejection  by  force,  and  he 
accordingly  used  up  that  forbearance  as  so  much 
leverage  for  his  request. 

Two  principles  of  the  fellah  nature  which  Europeans 
cannot  realise  at  first  are  that  they  cannot  exercise 
forbearance,  as  we  have  noticed  ; and  secondly,  that 
they  cannot  stand  long- continued  temptation.  Resi- 
dents sometimes  say  that  the  native  is  incurably  bad  ; 
that  he  may  serve  you  for  years,  and  rob  you  at  the 
end.  But  such  cases  are  really  the  fault  of  the  em- 
ployer, who  has  no  more  right  to  tempt  people  to 
rob  him  than  to  tempt  them  to  murder  him.  To 
reconcile  such  a view  of  the  fellah  with  the  astonishing 
honesty  and  particularity  that  I have  often  found,  may 
seem  difficult.  But  time  is  the  source  of  the  difference. 
A man  who  will  at  once  correct  his  accounts  against 
himself,  or  bring  you  some  trifle  that  you  have  over- 
looked or  forgotten,  will  be  quite  incapable  of  even 
far  less  honesty,  if  the  temptation  is  before  him  for 


THE  FELLAH 


183 


months.  Their  impulses  are  generally  sound  and 
honest;  but  if  they  begin  to  look  on  anything  as 
being  in  their  hands,  they  drift  easily  into  regarding 
it  as  their  own.  It  is  only  a more  rapid  application 
of  what  may  be  seen  in  England  regarding  long  trusts, 
charities,  tenant-right,  &c.  The  straightforward  ho- 
nesty that  I have  found  on  most  occasions  when 
an  immediate  temptation  was  before  the  fellah,  has 
surprised  me,  and  makes  it  needful  to  remember 
that  this  must  not  be  strained  and  tried  by  continual 
temptation,  the  exposure  to  which  will  almost  certainly 
spoil  the  character,  and  oblige  one  to  cast  aside  a man 
who  might  otherwise  have  been  useful  and  honest. 
Knowing  this,  I regard  these  failings  of  the  fellah  as 
lying  quite  as  much  at  his  employer’s  door  as  at  his 
own. 

One  of  the  pleasantest  points  of  the  Egyptian 
character  is  the  genuine  and  unfeigned  hospitality  so 
often  met  with.  If  in  walking  through  a village  I 
happen  to  pass  the  shekh  sitting  at  his  door,  he  will 
usually  press  the  stranger  to  come  in  and  have  coffee, 
and  hardly  take  a refusal.  When  pitching  tent  for 
the  night,  it  is  well  to  avoid  coming  under  the  shekh’s 
notice,  or  probably  he  will  insist  on  your  stopping  in 
his  house  : and  in  the  larger  towns  the  shekhs  have 
sometimes  excellent  guest-chambers,  with  European 
furniture.  This  is  hospitality  for  which  no  return  is 
expected,  or  would  be  accepted.  Even  with  poor 
people  it  is  the  custom  for  them  to  press  one  to  stay, 
and  to  have  coffee  or  food  with  them.  An  Egyptian 
travelling  in  England  would  think  it  very  brutal  that 
neither  the  squire  nor  any  of  the  inhabitants  of  a 


184 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


village  should  press  him  to  stay  for  a meal  or  for  the 
night  with  them  : he  would  set  us  down  as  shame- 
lessly mercenary,  and  without  any  sense  of  propriety 
or  generosity. 

It  is  certain  that  the  perceptions  of  an  Egyptian  are 
far  less  keen  than  ours.  Their  feeling  of  pain  is  hardly 
comparable  with  our  own : with  bad  injuries,  such 
as  torn  or  crushed  fingers,  they  do  not  seem  at  all 
distressed  ; and  a boy  said  to  me  that  it  was  no 
wonder  I healed  quickly,  as  I did  not  disturb  a wound, 
‘whereas  an  Arab  would  pull  a cut  open  to  look  at  it 
inside.’  With  pain,  so  with  the  senses  in  health.  They 
cannot  distinguish  one  person  from  another  by  the 
footstep  ; they  do  not  easily  distinguish  a voice  ; they 
seldom  respond  or  seem  to  perceive  any  words  when 
called  from  a distance,  unless  the  attention  is  aroused 
by  loudly  calling  the  person’s  name  ; they  never  notice 
slight  or  distant  sounds,  and  seem  to  suppose  that  you 
will  never  perceive  a whisper  from  one  to  another. 
That  the  sense  of  smell  is  not  much  developed  is  only 
too  evident  from  the  fearfully  filthy  condition  of  the 
village  surroundings,  which  are  sometimes  poisonous 
to  an  European. 

Unfortunately  the  result  of  education  is  rather  to 
spoil  than  to  develop  natural  ability.  Of  the  very' 
few  peasants  I have  met  with  who  had  been  taught  to 
write  two  were  fools  in  other  matters,  all  common 
sense  and  ability  appearing  to  have  been  crushed  out 
of  them.  Nor  is  this  at  all  surprising,  when  we  know 
that  the  cardinal  part  of  Muslim  education  is  the 
learning  of  the  pointless  prolixities  of  the  Koran  by 
heart,  as  a pure  matter  of  rote,  without  the  use  of  the 


THE  FELLAH 


185 


reason  or  intellect.  To  burden  a child’s  mind  with 
such  a fearful  task  is  enough  to  ruin  it,  if  not  strong. 
It  is  a sad  sight  to  see  the  whole  of  the  coming 
intellects  of  a town  rocking  themselves  to  and  fro 
while  they  gabble  through  sura  after  sura  of  the 
Koran  in  a gusty  sing-song  voice  without  pause  or 
point  ; and  then  to  reflect  that  this  is  the  end  and 
aim  of  nearly  all  their  education.  The  native  Coptic 
schools  are  the  only  encouraging  sight  of  indigenous 
training  ; and  the  ability  shown  by  some  of  their 
boys  is  astonishing. 

What  then  can  we  look  forward  to  as  the  hope 
of  improvement  of  such  a people  ? In  the  first 
place,  a strong  and  just  government,  with  a sufficient 
amount  of  an  incorruptible  European  element  to 
crush  out  bribery  and  ensure  justice  ; this,  in  a couple 
of  generations,  would  go  far  to  alter  the  national 
character.  To  trust  one’s  money  to  the  care  of  the 
government  at  the  post-office,  is  the  idea  which 
astounds  a fellah  more  than  anything  else  he  can 
learn  of  England.  An  education  in  which  the  Koran 
is  but  incidental,  and  not  a crushing  load  on  the 
memory,  is  another  necessity.  A spread  of  some 
sanitary  ideas,  and  a cheap  supply  of  some  staple 
medicines  for  the  commonest  ailments,  would  be  a 
great  step : the  utter  ignorance  and  lack  of  all 
common  sense  in  such  matters  is  appalling.  Probably 
improved  dwellings,  on  some  large  estates,  would  be 
the  most  powerful  means  for  changing  their  notions ; 
only  such  must  not  be  Europeanised,  but  thoroughly 
native  houses  reasonably  arranged  as  to  ventilation, 
dryness,  and  disposal  of  all  refuse ; thus  they  might 


1 86 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


lead  to  imitation;  and  a small  premium  on  well-built 
houses  would  push  the  subject.  The  labour  of  devoted 
missionaries  has  already  done  a good  deal  in  the  way 
of  education,  and  in  the  circulation  of  Christian  litera- 
ture ; but  hitherto  hardly  more  than  the  foundation 
for  further  work  in  this  direction  has  been  laid.  That 
English  influence  has  a vast  field  for  philanthropic 
enterprise  in  this  six  millions  of  people  is  obvious; 
but  the  best  intentions  may  be  too  easily  nullified  by 
ignorance  of  the  conditions  of  the  case,  and  by  the 
incapacity  and  resistance  of  the  average  native  official, 
by  whom  it  is  useless  to  expect  any  serious  change  or 
solid  advance  to  be  carried  out. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


THE  ACTIVE  TRIPPER  IN  EGYPT. 

So  much  is  Egypt  the  resort  of  the  invalid,  that 
the  guide-books  seem  all  infected  with  invalidism ; 
and  to  read  their  directions  it  might  be  supposed 
that  no  Englishman  could  walk  a mile  or  more 
without  an  attendant  of  some  kind.  In  reality,  Egypt 
is  one  of  the  most  delightful  countries  for  a walking 
tour,  as  regards  circumstances.  For  three  months 
from  the  middle  of  November  there  will  never  be 
a day  too  warm  for  active  exercise ; there  will  be 
hardly  any  rain  above  Cairo,  nor  as  much  in  the 
Delta  as  during  the  summer  in  any  European  country. 
There  is  the  same  safety  as  in  England  or  France: 
in  very  lonely  places,  as  upon  the  desert,  an  occasional 
robbery  may  be  committed,  but  I have  never  been 
molested  by  either  fellahin  or  Bedawin.  Of  course, 
the  native  language  is  as  much  needed  as  in  any 
foreign  country  ; but  a sufficient  amount  of  colloquial 
Arabic  can  be  learned  in  a few  weeks.  Three  friends 
of  mine  have  come  out  with  only  what  could  be  briefly 
learned  in  England,  and  each  has  been  able  in  a week 
or  two  to  make  his  way  sufficiently.  Learn  first  of  all 
what  you  want  in  Baedecker’s  vocabulary ; refer  to 


1 88  TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

Murray,  or  better,  to  a dictionary,  for  any  further 
words  you  want ; and  absorb  the  addenda  of  very 
common  words  which  come  at  the  end  of  this  chapter ; 
then  a week  or  two  in  Cairo,  talking  to  the  natives 
as  much  as  possible,  would  quite  suffice  to  float  the 
active  tripper.  The  main  trouble  is  to  catch  what 
is  said  to  you  ; and  for  this  there  is  no  better  practice 
than  listening  to  short  sentences  heard  in  the  streets, 
and  analysing  them. 

Many  would-be  trippers  think  of  Egypt  as  so  vastly 
expensive  that  they  dare  not  attempt  it.  I will  there- 
fore be  explicit  as  to  means  as  well  as  ways.  The 
P.  & O.,  Orient,  &c.,  are  a needless  cost.  If  a long 
voyage  is  no  objection,  Moss’s  line  from  Liverpool 
to  Alexandria  will  provide  all  sufficient  comfort,  for 
£ 14 , or  £ 2 4 return  ticket ; this  is  a favourite  way  of 
despatching  the  families  of  English  officials,  to  save 
the  trouble  and  cost  of  the  Overland  route.  For 
quickness  and  cheapness  the  Messageries  from  Mar- 
seilles to  Alexandria  is  best ; the  second  class  is 
excellent,  as  good  as  the  first  on  some  lines ; cost 
about  ,£14,  from  London  in  six  days.  But  all  except 
hand  baggage  should  be  sent  to  Alexandria  by  long 
sea  route.  From  experience  I can  say  that  for  all 
expenses  from  London  for  three  or  four  months  and 
back  again,  from  £50  to  £100  will  suffice,  according 
to  the  amount  of  travelling  in  Egypt,  &c.,  including 
food  and  wages. 

The  great  difference  between  Egypt  and  more 
civilized  countries  is  the  lack  of  inns.  Alexandria 
and  Cairo  abound  with  hotels,  and  there  are  two  or 
three  at  Luxor.  Regular  inns  are  to  be  found  at 


THE  ACTIVE  TRIPPER  IN  EGYPT  1 89 

most  of  the  main  towns  in  the  Delta,  and  at  Assuan, 
Assiut,  Medinet  el  Fayum,  and  other  large  places, 
though  mostly  of  a rough  kind.  Below  these  there 
are  the  Greek  wine-shops  in  most  towns,  where  some 
sort  of  shelter  can  be  had.  The  country  station-masters 
are  often  very  obliging,  and  will  allow  a traveller  to 
sleep  in  the  waiting-room  ; and — in  the  Delta  at  least — 
the  village  shekhs  are  very  hospitable,  and  generally 
have  a good  guest-room,  sometimes  with  European 
furniture.  Some  good  pocket-knives,  silver  spoons, 
and  such  articles,  should  be  taken  for  presents,  if  this 
accommodation  is  needed.  Also,  if  going  to  places 
where  rock  tombs  abound,  excellent  quarters  can 
be  had  in  them  ; no  dwelling  is  so  warm  at  night 
and  so  cool  in  the  day.  But  for  any  extended  journey 
it  is  best  to  take  a small  tent,  if  not  travelling  by 
boat.  Convenient  little  tents,  seven  feet  square,  with 
two  poles,  weighing  altogether  only  about  30  lbs., 
can  be  had  in  Cairo  for  about  twenty-five  shillings : 
such  an  one  can  be  pitched  or  packed  in  a few 
minutes,  and  goes  on  a donkey  with  all  the  other 
baggage. 

Some  servant  is  needful  to  look  after  the  things 
when  one  is  absent ; a grown-up  donkey-boy  will  be 
useful,  if  the  traveller  does  not  speak  Arabic  easily, 
as  he  will  have  a smattering  of  English  ; but  he  will 
be  perhaps  a doubtful  character,  and  will  want  about 
3 francs  a day.  Far  the  best  is  to  get  an  un- 
sophisticated fellah  from  some  village ; he  will  be 
more  trusty,  and  will  be  glad  of  1 or  ij  francs  a 
day  without  food.  If  there  was  no  other  means 
convenient  for  finding  a man,  I should  go  to  some 


190  TEN  YEARS'  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 

country  station,  and  ask  the  station-master  or  post- 
master to  recommend  some  fellah  whom  they  knew ; 
there  would  thus  be  a hold  upon  him  ; and  an  advance 
of  wages  could  be  left  with  his  guarantor,  to  satisfy 
him  of  one’s  good  faith  in  the  bargain.  For  going 
about  away  from  the  railway  or  Nile  steamers,  a 
donkey  must  be  hired  for  the  baggage ; there  is  no 
difficulty  in  getting  one  anywhere,  and  with  the  boy 
or  man  2^  francs  a day  is  plenty  in  the  country,  though 
3 or  4 francs  is  the  Cairo  rate.  If  by  any  chance 
one  is  wanted  for  riding,  remember  that  though  there 
are  native  saddles,  there  are  no  stirrups  in  the 
villages. 

As  to  food,  if  constantly  moving  about,  not  much 
can  be  taken  in  the  way  of  stores.  But  fowls  (4-5 
piastres),  eggs  (twelve  to  twenty-four  a piastre),  rice 
and  lentils  can  be  bought  anywhere.  Bread  is  not 
always  eatable,  as  some  villages  only  make  dirty  little 
pats  of  maize ; but  good  (though  heavy)  flap  bread  is 
made  at  nearly  all  towns  and  most  villages  (four  to 
eight  flaps  a piastre),  and  a day’s  supply  in  advance 
should  be  carried.  If  staying  for  some  weeks  at  one 
place,  or  going  in  a boat,  it  is  best  to  order  out  from 
England  assorted  boxes  of  stores,  each  box  to  con- 
tain all  that  is  wanted  for  three  weeks  or  a month  ; 
tinned  tongues,  soups,  salmon,  jams,  cocoa,  tea. 
biscuits,  & c.  Otherwise  some  tinned  goods  (sardines, 
peas,  &c.)  can  be  got  in  most  large  towns ; and  some 
canisters  should  be  taken  for  sugar,  salt,  pepper,  tea. 
and  coffee ; the  latter  can  be  made  in  the  cup  as 
wanted.  The  essential  articles  of  canteen  are : — 
Petroleum  stove  (‘Hero’  size  is  most  useful),  with 


THE  ACTIVE  TRIPPER  IN  EGYPT  191 

saucepan,  kettle,  and  frying-pan,  and  a tin  can  with 
cork  to  carry  petroleum  (gaz,  Arabic),  as  the  stove 
must  be  emptied  when  travelling.  Gaz  can  be  bought 
in  any  large  village,  and  if  constantly  moving,  the 
kettle  and  frying-pan  are  not  needful : the  stove 
may  be  bought  in  Cairo,  but  perhaps  not  the  best 
size.  Cups,  plates,  spoons,  forks,  candles,  matches, 
dusters,  and  galvanised  pail  can  be  got  in  any  large 
town.  For  sleeping,  a mattress  is  a mistake,  as  the 
same  weight  of  blankets  are  as  soft,  more  easily 
aired  and  packed,  and  can  be  used  for  warmth  if 
needful.  Take  six  blankets,  laid  one  on  the  other  and 
then  folded  over  down  the  middle,  and  there  are  twelve 
thicknesses,  of  which  three  or  four  will  serve  for 
warmth  above,  and  eight  or  nine  for  softness  below, 
and  the  wind  cannot  get  in  on  the  turned-over  side. 
To  pack  these,  roll  them  tightly,  with  the  crockery 
in  the  midst,  and  lash  round  with  two  cords ; then 
wrap  in  a sheet  of  oiled  cloth,  large  enough  to  spread 
between  the  blankets  and  the  ground  when  sleeping, 
and  rope  up  the  bundle.  All  this  may  be  bought 
in  Cairo. 

For  medicines  not  much  is  needful ; but  in  case  of 
emergencies  take  sulphate  of  zinc  (1  per  cent,  solution) 
for  the  eyes  ; quinine  (5-10  grs.  for  fever,  5 p.  c.  sol. 
alone,  or  mixed  with  the  previous,  for  eyes) ; carbolic 
acid  (1  to  3 of  oil  for  scrapes  and  cuts,  &c.),  and  any 
special  remedies  needed.  In  general,  diet  is  the  main 
matter ; aperients  are  needless  with  plenty  of  native 
bread  and  cooked  tomatoes  ; and,  on  the  other  hand,  if 
necessary,  live  on  rice  (very  well  boiled  with  a large 
amount  of  water),  and  avoid  fat  and  sugar.  The  less 


192  ten  YEARS'  DIGGING  IN  .EGYPT 

clothing  is  used  by  day,  and  the  more  at  night,  the 
better ; the  clear  nights  are  usually  down  to  freezing 
in  the  winter,  even  far  up  the  Nile,  while  the  day  may 
be  7o°to  80°.  The  main  matter  is  to  avoid  being  out 
at  sunset ; or  at  least  keep  moving  then,  and  avoid  any 
chill,  as  fever  is  generally  caught  at  that  time.  All 
drinking  water  should  be  boiled  thoroughly ; excepting 
perhaps  when  taken  from  the  middle  of  the  Nile,  and 
not  just  below  a town. 

For  a trip  up  the  Nile  the  most  thorough  way  is  to 
take  a small  native  boat,  with  a cabin  on  it,  entirely  to 
yourself,  or  with  only  a like-minded  companion.  Such 
a boat  can  generally  be  found  at  the  main  towns, 
Cairo,  Minia,  Assiut,  &c.  ; when  more  pretentious, 
with  several  cabins,  it  ranks  as  a dahabyieh.  The  boat 
should  be  hired  with  a written  English,  French,  or 
Italian  agreement  in  duplicate,  some  European  shop- 
keeper known  to  the  boatman  serving  as  his  trans- 
lator, to  assure  him  of  the  terms.  The  actual  terms  ol 
a boat  I hired  at  Minia  were  ‘A.  B.  agrees  to  hire  a 
boat  with  cabin  from  C.  D.,with  a reis,  two  sailors,  and 
boy,  at  ten  francs  per  day.  Ten  days’  hire  guaranteed  ; 
after  that  by  the  day.  To  be  discharged  anywhere 
below  the  first  cataract  (Assuan)  without  any  return 
pay.  No  food  provided.  Payments  to  be  made  as 
demanded,  taking  receipts.’  If  they  dawdle,  and  it 
is  needful  to  push  on  quicker,  a promise,  of  say  50 
francs  on  reaching  the  terminus  by  a certain  day.  less 
5 francs  a day  for  all  time  after  that,  will  be  effectual. 
Always  stay  for  the  night  above  a town  or  village,  for 
the  sake  of  cleaner  water. 

If  only  the  principal  places  are  to  be  visited,  the 


THE  ACTIVE  TRIPPER  IN  EGYPT  193 

postal  steamer  will  suffice,  taking  tent,  blankets,  &c.. 
to  stay  where  desired.  From  Assiut  to  Assuan  costs 
£5,  without  food  ; the  cabins  holding  two  or  four,  well 
fitted  ; and  if  all  places  are  taken  it  is  quite  practicable 
to  go  on  deck,  sleeping  in  blankets  (only  85  piastres). 
Passage  can  be  taken  between  any  two  stations  at 
proportional  rates.  When  pitching  tents,  always  stay 
by  a village,  and  the  shekh  is  responsible  for  your 
safety ; look  out  for  one  of  the  little  huts  in  which  the 
village  guards  stay  at  night,  and  pitch  ten  or  twenty 
yards  in  front  of  it ; thus  the  guards  will  not  come  and 
sleep  by  the  tent,  for  if  they  do  their  incessant  talking 
or  snoring  will  prevent  any  sound  sleep.  At  Thebes 
the  'best  camping  ground  is  in  the  Ramesseum  (the 
guards’  head-quarters)  and  under  a tree  by  the  pylon 
of  Horemheb  ; and  at  Assuan  in  the  bay  above  the 
town. 

There  is  no  need  to  carry  much  money  about,  as 
the  post-offices  serve  for  banks ; and  the  regular 
bankers  and  agents  generally  charge  (by  exchange, 
&c.)  nearly  or  quite  the  1 per  cent,  of  the  post. 
Postal  money  orders  should  be  taken  in  England  for 
£10  each,  one  or  more  as  probably  required,  on  each 
of  the  main  towns  visited.  The  best  address  for 
receiving  the  actual  Egyptian  orders  (for  English 
forms  are  useless)  is  Poste  Restante,  Alexandria,  as 
any  enquiries  about  them  should  be  made  there.  The 
money  is  paid  in  English  gold  at  the  offices.  All 
accounts  are,  however,  paid  in  piastres,  at  975  to  the 
sovereign. 

In  case  of  taking  luggage  about  by  train  or  steamer, 
remember  that  nothing  goes  free  except  what  is  carried. 

O 


] 94 


TEN  YEARS’  DIGGING  IN  EGYPT 


All  heavy  things  must  be  weighed,  paid  for,  and  a 
receipt  obtained  before  the  train  leaves ; and  baggage 
is  only  given  up  in  exchange  for  the  receipt  ( = bolicy 
Arab.).  Exactly  the  same  must  be  done  for  goods, 
which  are  usually  despatched  within  twelve  hours  by 
goods  train,  at  half  the  rate  of  passenger  train.  There 
is  no  delivery  of  goods ; everything  must  be  claimed 
with  the  bolicy  and  fetched  away.  Carts  cost  about  i to 
2 francs  the  hour,  and  a bargain  should  be  made  with 
the  driver  for  the  whole  business.  If  passenger  luggage 
is  left  at  stations  the  charge  is  heavy  (3  p.  each  day  or 
part  for  each  parcel),  but  the  station  cleaner  will  look 
after  things  for  a few  hours.  Goods  are  charged  1 p. 
per  parcel  per  dayatCairo  and  Alexandria,  but  Sundays 
and  24  hours  after  arrival,  free.  At  country  stations 
the  charges  are  next  to  nothing,  and  things  may  be  sent 
by  goods  train  and  left  for  a week  or  two  if  necessary. 
Receipts  are  always  given  for  every  legal  charge,  how- 
ever trifling ; but  see  that  the  amount  asked  for  is 
what  is  written. 

The  above  details  are  of  course  only  supplementary 
to  the  usual  guide-book  information.  But  there  is  no 
real  difficulty  likely  to  be  met  with  in  roughing  it 
thus ; and  in  case  of  emergencies  the  station-masters 
or  post-masters  can  be  appealed  to,  as  they  all  under- 
stand English  or  French.  Many  of  them  have  been  in 
Europe,  and  I may  say  that  I have  received  much 
kindness  and  friendliness  from  these  excellent  officials, 
who  are  largely  Coptic  Christians.  They  are  above  the 
common  greed  for  petty  bakhshish  ; though  of  course 
kindness  may  be  recognized  by  a book,  photographs, 
or  other  presents,  as  to  a European  official.  In  most 


THE  ACTIVE  TRIPPER  IN  EGYPT  195 

bargains  for  services,  as  with  donkey-boys,  camel-men, 
boats,  guides,  &c.,  it  should  be  remembered  that  5 to 
10  per  cent,  extra  is  expected  as  bakhshish  in  a lump 
at  the  end,  subject  to  good  behaviour ; and  this  gives 
an  excellent  hold  on  the  people. 


ADDENDA  TO  BAEDECKER’S 
VOCABULARY 


Station,  mahal/a-,  ticket,  tezkereh , warak,  bi/ieto)  ist  class,  brimo\ 
2nd  clas=,  secondo ; (does)  this  go  to  Cairo?  deh  raih  al  Masr\  train, 
kattr ; engine,  wabur  ; carriage,  arabiyeh  ; goods,  buda'a  ; goods  train, 
kattr  el  buda'a  ; baggage-receipt,  bo l icy  (pronounced  boltse) ; storage 
charge,  ardiyeh.  I (will)  beat  the  telegraph  ( = 1 will  telegraph),  ana 
adrob  et  telegraphia  ; the  wires,  es  silk. 

(The  dots  in  the  following  words  separate  the  elements,  which  are 
here  translated  literally.) 

Show,  me  the  snake,  warri-ni  el  hanesh.  Not  showed. I to. him  the 
fowl,  ma  warr-et  l-ush  el  farkha  ( sh  like  French  pas,  untranslated). 
Not-thou-leave-it,  ma-t-khalli-u- sh.  He  opened -it,  Huweh  fatah-u. 
Thou  earnest  from  where  ? Ente  git  min  ayn.  From  the  desert  (hill 
or  plain),  min  el  gebel.  Thou  goest  where  ? Ente  raih  fen.  North- 
wards, bahri.  The  engine  it  - leaves  wneu  T et  wabur  ye-safir  emta\ 
at-the  sunset,  fi-l  maghreo.  Atest-thou  rive  pounds  in -the  four-months, 
pound -and -quarter  for  the  month,  kal-t  khamast  ertal fi-l  arbat-usher, 
rotl-u-rub  bi-sh  shahr  (accent  strongly  as  marked).  Two  cubits  length 
(pair  cubits)  for  two  piastres  (dual),  gozet  idra  bi  hirshen.  Finished, 
khalds.  1 am  very  tired  (I  bad  • ed  entirely),  ana  battal-t  khalas. 
Finished  entirely,  Khalds  khdlas.  (It)  was  cold  very  in -the -morning 
before  the  sun(rise),  kan  bard  kowi  fi-’s  subh  kabl  esh  shems.  The 
peasants  (are)  foolish  like  cattle,  el  fellahin  rnagnun  zeyeh  behaim. 
A lucky  day  for  you  (literally,  day -thy,  milk)  neharak  leben.  By  life 
(of)  the  prophet,  wa  hayt  en  nebi.  By  life  (of)  father -thy,  wa  hayt 
abu-k.  Bless  me!  (oh  health -my)  ya  salam-i  (really  a title  of  the 
Deity). 

Village  night  guard,  ghafir,  pi.  ghofera. 


INDEX 


(. Including  a reference  to  each  Illustration.) 


Accuracy,  meaning  of,  14;  of 
Khufu’s  pyramid,  19  ; of  Khafra’s 
pyramid,  22  ; of  Usertesen's  coffin, 

109. 

Aegean  confederacy,  152;  pottery, 
HI,  124,  132-3. 

Agricultural  tools,  119. 

Alabaster  cups,  1 20. 

Alphabetic  marks,  12 1,  134. 

Altar  of  offerings,  89. 

Alterations  of  design  in  pyramids, 
21,  24. 

Am,  now  Tell  Nebesheh,  69. 
Amasis,  destroys  Daphnae,  61. 
Amenardus,  priestess,  125;  queen, 

72- 

Amenemhat  II,  81  ; III,  83,  89. 
Amenhotep  III,  122  ; IV,  122. 
Amulets,  found  on  mummies,  69, 
92-4 ; history  of,  1 26. 

Anen,  the  Tursha  head  of,  130,  132. 
Animal  figures  on  rocks,  75. 

Antef  V,  tablet  of,  74. 

Apepi,  stamp  of,  122. 

Apries  and  Amasis,  war  of,  61. 
Arabic,  amount  needful,  187. 

Arch  early  in  use,  1 1 5. 

Arsinoe,  work  at,  81-82. 

Assuan,  inscriptions  of,  72. 


Babies  buried  in  boxes,  116. 

Baboon  of  ivory,  1 1 7. 

Bakakhuiu,  statue  of,  34. 

Barracks  of  pyramid  woikmen,  25, 
113- 

Basalt  statue  of  Si-sebek,  117. 

Bead  work  patterns,  125. 

Biahmu,  pedestals,  83 ; statues  at,  84. 

Birket  Rerun,  building  at,  104-5. 

Boreas  and  Typhon  vase,  57. 

Botany  of  ancient  Egypt,  104. 

Bowl,  turned  in  dioiite,  27  ; of  blue- 
glaze,  135. 

Bribery  omnipotent,  179. 

Brick  mould,  1 18. 

Bronze,  hinges,  129;  introduction 
of,  151,  153;  pans,  128,  130; 
tools,  129. 

Burial,  directions  of,  69 ; with  por- 
traits, 97 ; in  clothing,  101  ; of 
burnt  objects,  132;  at  Medum, 
145- 

Buto,  Arabian  and  western,  69. 

Care  needed  for  papyri,  34-5. 

Casing  of  great  pyramid,  20,  25  ; of 
third  pyramid,  17  ; of  Dahshur 
pyramid,  78. 

Casket  of  ivory,  102. 


198 


INDEX 


Castanets,  ivory,  116. 

Chair,  117. 

Chisels,  43,  46,  58,  112,  120,  129, 
154- 

Civilization  of  Egypt,  early,  144, 
150;  of  Europe,  early,  153-5. 
Cleanliness,  kinds  of,  14. 

Climatic  changes,  148. 

Coin  of  Naukrntis,  45. 

Colossus  of  Amenemhat  III,  84  ; of 
Ramessu  II,  32. 

Colours  firmly  fixed,  no. 

Column  supporting  statue,  65 ; of 
third  dynasty,  143. 

Copper  tools,  115,  117,  120. 
Crocodile  burials,  92. 

Crown  drills,  26. 

Cylinder  seals,  145. 

Cypriote  pottery,  68  ; soldier,  37. 

Dahshur,  casing  of  pyramid,  78; 
door  of  pyramid,  24, 78  ; pyramids, 
79- 

Dancer,  figure  of,  1 16. 

Daphnae,  ruins  of,  50 ; restoration 
of,  52  ; destruction  of,  61. 

Dates  of  dynasties,  9. 

Dedications,  38,  41,  42,  44. 

Demotic  inscription  on  vase.  58. 
Denudation  of  Nile  valley,  149;  of 
tombs,  68. 

Derwishes  in  villages,  171. 

Diseases,  ancient,  146. 

Dolls,  Roman,  103. 

Doors  of  pyramids,  24. 
Draught-board,  145. 

Drill,  119. 

Dynasties,  dates  of,  9. 

Education  in  Egypt,  168,  184. 
Egypt,  earliest  state  of,  148  ; civiliza- 
tion in,  151  ; modem,  167. 


Elephantine,  royal  names  at,  72. 
Embroideries,  Coptic,  126,  136. 
Esneh,  prehistoric  flint,  76,  149. 
Europe,  early  civilization  of,  152-4. 
Excavation,  system  of,  158;  scope 
of,  164. 

Fallacies  regarding  pyramids,  24. 
Fanaticbm,  Muslim,  173. 

Festivals  in  villages,  170. 

Flint  hippopotamus,  127;  knife,  82, 
120;  prehistoric,  76,  149,  150; 
sickles,  1 19;  tools,  118. 

Flower  wreaths,  103. 

Forbearance  unknown  to  fellahin, 
176. 

Foreigners  at  Gurob,  129-134;  at 
Illahun,  121,  123;  confederacy  of, 
152  ; represented,  77. 

Foundation  deposits,  Daphnae,  53  ; 
Illahun,  1 12;  Naukratis,  43  ; Ne- 
besheh,  66. 

— laying  out  of,  143. 

Funereal  customs,  132,  146. 

Gardner,  Mr.  Ernest,  39,  41,  42,  47. 
Geographical  papyrus,  35. 

Gizeh,  work  at,  11. 

Glass  vase,  coloured,  133  ; cut,  101. 
Glazed,  bowls,  1 35 ; vases,  blue,  134  ; 
work  in  XVIII  dyn.,  151  ; work 
in  XXII  dyn.,  126. 

Gold  band,  Naukratis,  49. 

— finger  ring,  Tanis,  33. 

— handle,  Daphnae,  59. 

— Ra,  63. 

— work  at  Daphnae,  62. 

Graffiti,  of  Med  urn,  141  ; Phoenician, 

73  ; of  Silsileh,  73. 

Granite  casing,  dressing  of,  17; 

core  of  tube  drill,  26. 

Graving  of  diorite,  27. 


INDEX 


I99 


Greek,  early  portrait  of,  77 ; mer- 
cenaries, 37,  39,  43,  51,  68  ; trade, 
43.  45.  48.  &I ! (see  Aegean, 
Foreigners,  Vases'). 

Griffith,  Mr.  F.  LL,  50,  64,  71. 
Gurob,  128. 

Hanebu,  head  of,  77. 

Harper,  Hittite,  132. 

Hawara  cemetery,  92  ; pyramid,  8i, 
87. 

Herodotos  visited  Fayum,  84. 
Hinges,  interlocking,  129. 

Hittite  harper,  132  ; Sadi-amia,  132. 
Horuta,  amulets  of,  94  ; tomb  of,  92. 
Hospitality  in  Egypt,  183. 

Houses,  modem,  168,  170,  172. 
Hyksos  kings,  32,  66. 

Illahun cemetery,  124;  pyramid,  107. 
Iron,  age  of,  152  ; tools,  46,  58. 
Italy,  influence  of,  154. 

Ivory  casket,  102  ; duck  box,  137. 

Jeremiah  at  Daphnae,  51,  54. 
Jewellery,  Greek,  61-3. 

Jew’s  daughter,  palace  of,  51  ; refuge 
at  Tahpanhes,  53. 

Jews  meet  with  Greeks,  54. 

Joseph,  vice-royalty  of,  66. 

Kahun,  112. 

Khafra,  mace  of,  23 ; pyramid  of,  22. 
Khufn,  pyramid  of,  19-22  ; plummet 
of,  28. 

Kings,  list  of,  9. 

Kismet,  174, 

Labyrinth,  great  extent,  91 ; site  of, 
91- 

Law  in  modern  Egypt,  179. 
Lykaonian  spearheads,  68. 


Mace  head  of  Khafra,  23. 

Maket  tomb,  122-4. 

Means  of  work,  6. 

Measurement,  means  of,  15,  19. 

Medum  pyramid,  138,  142;  tombs, 
143- 

Medusa  heads,  47. 

Menkaura,  pyramid  of,  17,  23,  109. 

Merenptah  at  Gurob,  128,  134; 
statue  of,  65. 

Mirror,  117,  120,  132. 

Monolith  chamber  of  Hawara,  90. 

Moulds  for  scarabs,  45. 

Mounds,  forms  of,  156. 

Mummies,  amulets  intact,  69,  92  ; 
decoration  of,  98;  earliest,  146; 
with  bead  work,  125. 

Musical  reeds,  124. 

Mykenae,  civilization  of,  152. 

Naukratis,  cemetery,  47  ; coin  of, 
45;  dedication  at,  38;  discovery 
of,  36-8 ; fort  of,  36-9  ; Greek 
origin  of,  39,  45;  Panhellenion, 
42 ; temples,  39. 

Naukratite  vases,  41,  47,  48. 

Nebesheh,  cemetery,  68  ; first  temple, 
67;  shrine,  64;  temple  of  Aahmes, 
65- 

Nebuchadnezzar,  54. 

Necking  of  columns,  40. 

Neferu-ptah  altar,  89. 

Negro  on  vase,  48. 

Nehesi,  obelisk  of,  31. 

Nile,  exploring,  71  ; formerly  high, 
75.  x48_9- 

Numeral  signs,  from  ropes,  145. 

Obedience  natural  to  fellahin,  177-8. 

Officials  isolated  from  fellahin,  180. 

Palaistra  of  Naukratis,  44. 

Palmetto  pattern,  age  of,  56. 


200 


INDEX 


Panhellenion  at  Naukratis,  42. 

Papyrus  deeds,  Byzantine,  103  ; of 
Amenhotep  III,  122  ; IV,  122  ; 
of  XII  dynasty,  1 20  ; Ptolemaic, 
136;  of  Iliad,  103;  rolls  burnt, 
34-5  ; rotted,  33. 

Patterns  on  vases,  56. 

Perceptions  of  fellahin,  184. 

Phoenician  inscription,  73  ; pottery, 
124 ; Venus,  132. 

Photographing  with  magnesium,  79. 

Plummet  of  Khufu,  28. 

Portraits  on  mummies,  97-9. 

Pottery,  importance  o , 158. 

Preservation  of  bead-work,  125;  of 
wood,  &c.,  165. 

Psamtik  I,  camp  for  mercenaries, 
39,  52  ; founder  of  Daphnae,  52  ; 
II,  72. 

Ptolemy  IT,  steles  of,  30,  31. 

Pun,  people  of,  76. 

Pyramid  excavations,  16,  140 ; from 
the  desert,  28  ; of  Biahmu,  83  ; of 
Gizeh,  11-28  ; of  Hawara,  81,  87  ; 
of  Illahun,  107  ; of  Medum,  132, 
142. 

Races,  two  in  Egypt,  146,  150. 

Racial  portraits,  77-8. 

Rainfall,  great  anciently,  148. 

Ramessu  II,  colossus  of,  32  ; statue 
of,  65;  at  Arsinoe,  82  ; at  Gurob, 
128;  at  Illahun,  no,  in;  III, 
129. 

Relationships  on  tablets,  72. 

Res,  statuette  of,  130,  131. 

Roads,  ancient  in  desert,  80 ; way- 
marks  on,  80. 

Roofing,  115. 

Ruins,  varieties  of,  156. 

Saints  of  Muslims,  169. 

Sankhkara,  tablet  of,  75. 


Sarcophagus,  basalt,  inscribed,  69; 

painted  wood,  95. 

Saws  for  stone,  26. 

Scarab  moulds,  45. 

Sealings  of  wine  jars,  60. 

Sedan  chair,  102. 

Seneferu  at  Medum,  139,  142. 
Senses  of  the  fellah,  184. 

Sham  inscriptions,  125. 

Shrine  of  amulet,  59,  63 ; of  Ne- 
besheh,  64,  66 ; of  pyramid  of 
UserteSen,  no. 

Sickles  of  flint  in  wood,  119. 
Silsileh,  tablets  of,  74. 

Sling  woven,  117. 

Sphinx,  often  reappropriated,  65. 
Stairs  at  Kahun,  114. 

Superstition  in  Egypt,  169. 
Surveying  at  Dahshur,  79  ; at  Gizeh, 
15;  at  Tanis,  32. 


Tablets  at  Elephantine,  73. 

Tahpanhes  (see  Daphnae ),  50. 

Tahutmes  III,  128. 

Tanis,  houses  of,  33-5 ; ruins  of 
temple,  29-32. 

Temple  of  Amenemhat  III,  91  ; of 
pyramids,  25;  of  Seneferu,  140; 
of  Tanis,  29-32  ; of  third  pyramid, 
18;  of  Usertesen  II,  no. 

Temptation  too  much  for  fellah,  182. 

Theories  about  great  pyramid,  22, 
142. 

Thread,  balls  of,  117. 

Tirhaka,  stele  of,  31. 

Tomb  dwelling,  n ; of  Horuta,  92  ; 
ofMaket,  122. 

Tools,  bronze,  129;  copper,  115, 
117,  120;  flint,  76,  82,  118-120, 
1 49,  150;  iron,  Daphnae,  58; 
iron,  Naukratis,  46 ; wood,  117- 


INDEX 


201 


1 19;  models  of,  43,  1 1 2 ; of  pyra- 
mid builders,  25-8. 

Torque  of  copper,  120. 

Toys  and  dolls,  102-3,  106,  121. 
Trap  doors  in  Hawara  pyramid,  87. 
Travelling  in  Egypt,  188. 
Triangulation  at  Gizeh,  1 5. 

Truth,  lack  of,  in  Egypt,  178. 
Tubular  drills,  26. 

Tunnelling  Hawara  pyramid,  85. 
Turning  in  stone,  27. 

Tursha,  coffin  of  Anen,  130. 

Typhon  and  Boreas  vase,  57. 

Usarkon  I,  124. 

Usertesen  II,  108  ; III,  65,  66,  120. 
Ushabti  figures,  70,  93. 

Usurpation  by  viziers,  66. 

Vases,  blue-glazed,  134;  Greek, 
derived  from  metal,  55 ; made 


locally,  55  ; of  Daphnae,  54,  57  ; 
ofNaukratis,  41,  48  ; of  Nebesheh, 
68. 

Villages,  modem,  168,  170,  172- 

Walking  trip  in  Egypt,  187. 

Walls,  tracing  out,  162. 

Wax  as  preservative,  96,  100,  125, 
165;  paintings,  100. 

Wills,  120,  136. 

Wooden  tools,  117-9;  statuettes, 
I3I- 

Workmanship  of  great  pyramid,  20, 
21  ; methods,  25-8;  of  Usertesen 
II,  109. 

Workmen,  system  of  ancient,  25 ; 
treatment  of,  161. 

Wreaths  of  flowers,  103. 

Zodiac  of  Tanis,  33. 


THE  END. 


WORKS  BY  MR.  FLINDERS  PETRIE 


Inductive  Metrology,  8j.  6 d.  Stanford. 

Stonehenge : Plans,  Descriptions,  and  Theories.  3 s.  6d. 
Stanford. 


S 


The  Pyramids  and  Temples  of  Gizeh.  Cheap  and 
Revised  Edition.  8 plates.  6s.  The  Leadenhall  Press. 

Tanis.  Part  I.  19  Plates.  25 s.  Kegan  Paul  if  Co. 

Tanis.  Part  II.  Nebesheh  and  Defenneh  (Tahpanhes). 
64  Plates.  25J.  Kegan  Paul  if  Co. 


/ 


Naukratis.  Part  I.  45  Plates.  25J.  Kegan  Paul  <J-  Co. 

Hieroglyphic  Papyrus  from  Tanis.  15  plates.  5*. 
Kegan  Paul  Co. 


/ 

/ 


A Season  in  Egypt.  1887.  32  plates.  12J.  The  Leaden- 
hall Press. 

Racial  Portraits.  190  photographs  from  Egyptian  monu- 
ments. 45.?.  Harman,  High  Street , Bromley , Kent. 


Historical 

Nutt. 


Scarabs,  Drawings  of  2,220. 


68  plates.  8j. 


Hawara,  Biahmu,  and  Arsinoe.  30  plates.  (Out  of 
Print.) 

Kahun,  Gurob,  and  Hawara.  28  plates.  i6j.  Kegan 

Paul  Co. 

Illahun,  Kahun,  and  Gurob.  33  plates.  i6j.  Nutt. 
Tell  el  Hesy  (Lachish).  10  plates,  iox.  6d.  Alexander 
Walt. 


Medum.  36  plates,  many  coloured.  241:  Nutt. 


